Engineering is a creative application of science, mathematical methods, and empirical evidence for innovation, design, construction, operation and maintenance of structures, machinery, materials, devices, systems, processes, and organizations. The engineering disciplines cover a variety of more specialized engineering areas, each with a more specific emphasis on a particular field of applied mathematics, applied science, and the type of application. See the engineering glossary.
The term technique comes from the Latin ingenium , which means "intelligence" and ingeniare , which means "to design, to organize".
Video Engineering
Definisi
The Council of American Engineers for Professional Development (ECPD, ABET's predecessor) has defined "engineering" as:
Creative applications of scientific principles for designing or developing structures, machinery, equipment, or manufacturing processes, or working to utilize them singly or in combination; or to build or operate the same with full awareness of their design; or to forecast their behavior under certain operating conditions; all as the intended function, economic operation and the safety of life and property.
Maps Engineering
History
Techniques have existed since ancient times, when humans designed inventions such as wedges, levers, wheels and pulleys.
The term engineering comes from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer (literally, the person who operates the engine ) is called "military machine constructor." In this context, now out of date, a "machine" refers to a military machine, ie , a mechanical device used in war (eg, a catapult). An important example of the outdated usage that still survives today is the military engineering corps, for example. , US Army Engineer Corps.
The word "machine" itself originates even older, mainly derived from the Latin ingenium (c 1250), which means "innate quality, especially mental strength, then a clever discovery."
Then, because the design of civil structures, such as bridges and buildings, matures as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering enters the lexicon as a way of distinguishing between those who specialize in the construction of such non-military projects and those engaged in military engineering disciplines.
Ancient Era
The Pyramids of Egypt, the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueduct, Via Appia and the Colosseum, TeotihuacÃÆ'¡n, the Great Wall of China, the Brihadeeswarar Thanjavur Temple, among many others, stand as evidence of the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and Pharos in Alexandria were a major engineering achievement of their day and are considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The earliest civil engineer known as Imhotep. As one of the officials of Pharaoh, DjosÃÆ'¨r, he may design and supervise the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. Ancient Greeks developed engines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical invention of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' discoveries as well as Antikythera mechanisms require advanced knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that help design the Industrial Revolution gear, and are still widely used today in areas such as robotics. and automotive engineering.
Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hungarian soldiers used military machines and inventions such as artillery developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, trireme, ballista and slingshot. In the Middle Ages, trebuchet was developed.
Renaissance Era
The first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this device gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the next few decades, allowing for the start of mass production.
With the advent of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, this term became more narrowly applied to areas where mathematics and science applied to these goals. Similarly, in addition to military and civilian techniques, the field which came to be known as mechanical art became incorporated into engineering.
Modern era
The discovery of Thomas Newcomen and James Watt gave rise to modern engineering techniques. The development of special machines and machine tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both at birth in both Britain and abroad.
John Smeaton was the first civil engineer to self-proclaim and was often regarded as a "father" of civil engineering. He is a British civil engineer who is responsible for the design of bridges, canals, ports, and lighthouses. He is also a capable mechanical engineer and a prominent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755-59) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar to be installed underwater) and developed a technique involving granite blocks in the lighthouse building. The lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt in Plymouth Hoe where it was known as the Smeaton Tower. He is important in history, rediscovery, and the development of modern cement, as he identifies the composition requirements necessary to obtain "hydraulicity" in chalk; a job that eventually led to the discovery of Portland cement.
The US census of 1850 recorded the occupation of "engineers" for the first time with a count of 2,000. There were less than 50 engineering graduates in the US before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen US engine engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical fields.
There was no applied mechanical seats and mechanisms implemented at Cambridge until 1875, and no engineering chairman at Oxford until 1907. Germany established an engineering university earlier.
The fundamentals of electro engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. Theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell equations) and Heinrich Hertz at the end of the 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics. The subsequent invention of vacuum tubes and transistors further accelerated the development of electronics in such a way that electrical and electronic engineers today exceed their counterparts from other engineering specialties. Chemical techniques developed in the late nineteenth century. The scale manufacturing industry demanded new materials and new processes and in 1880 the need for large scale chemical production was such that new industries were created, dedicated to the development and manufacture of large-scale chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of chemical engineers is the design of these factories and chemical processes.
Offering aeronautical engineering to the design of aircraft design processes while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that extends the range of discipline by incorporating the design of the spacecraft. Its origins can be traced back to aviation pioneers around the beginning of the 20th century although Sir George Cayley's recent work dates from the last decade of the 18th century. The earliest knowledge of aviation techniques is largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other engineering branches.
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) provided in the United States was awarded to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it is also a second PhD degree awarded in science in the US.
Just a decade after the successful flight by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aviation techniques through the development of military aircraft used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide a fundamental science background was continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.
In 1990, with the advent of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Emtage.
Main branch of engineering
Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a particular discipline, he can be multi-disciplinary through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four major branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering.
Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.
Civil engineering
Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and maintenance etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering has traditionally been broken down into several sub-disciplines, including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying. Traditionally considered apart from military techniques.
Electrical Engineering
Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as Broadcast techniques, electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, control, and electronics.
Mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aircraft/aircraft products, weapon systems, transport products, machinery, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing and mechatronics.
Other branches
Beyond this "Big 4", a number of other branches are recognized, although many can be considered as sub-disciplines of the four main branches, or as cross-curricular disciplines among many. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were the main branches. Other engineering fields sometimes included as a major branch are system engineering, manufacturing engineering, acoustic engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronics, petroleum, environment, systems, audio, software, architecture, agriculture, biosystems, biomedicine, geology, textiles, industry, materials, and nuclear engineering. These engineering branches and others are represented in 36 licensed member institutions of the British Engineering Council.
New specializations are sometimes combined with traditional fields and forming new branches - for example, the engineering and management of earth systems involves various subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and engineering philosophy.
Practice
People who practice engineering are called engineers, and those who are licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineers, Chartered Engineers, Engineers Incorporated, Ingenieur, European Engineers, or Special Engineering Representatives.
Methodology
In the process of engineering design, engineers apply mathematics and science such as physics to find new solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. More than ever, engineers are now required to have proficient knowledge of relevant science for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.
If there are multiple solutions, engineers weigh each design choice based on their accomplishments and choose the solution that best fits the requirements. The very important and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret constraints on a design to produce successful results. Generally not enough to build a technically successful product, but also must meet further requirements.
Limits may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, security, marketing power, productivity, and serviceability. By understanding the boundaries, the engineers get the specs for the boundaries in which a proper object or system can be produced and operated.
General methodology and engineering epistemology can be inferred from historical case studies and comments provided by Walter Vincenti. Although the case studies of Vincenti come from the field of aviation engineering, the conclusions can be transferred to many other engineering branches as well.
According to Billy Vaughn Koen, "technical method is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in situations that are poorly understood in available resources." Koen argues that the definition of what makes an engineer should not be based on what he produces, but how he does it.
Troubleshooting
Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find the right solution to a problem. Creating the exact mathematical model of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.
Typically, some reasonable solutions exist, so engineers should evaluate different design options on their merits and choose the solutions that best meet their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after collecting statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromise is at the heart of "low level" engineering design, while at a higher level, the best design is that eliminates the core contradictions that cause problems.
Engineers usually try to predict how well their design will work to their specifications before full-scale production. They use, among others: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that the product will perform as expected.
Engineers are responsible for producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not cause undesirable harm to the wider community. Engineers typically include security factors in their design to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.
The study of products fails to be known as forensic engineering and can help product designers in evaluating their designs in light of real conditions. Discipline is the greatest value after a disaster, such as a collapsed bridge, when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or cause of failure.
Computer usage
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer aided technology) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate fundamental physical process models, which can be solved using numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-based (CAD) software such as CATIA, Autodesk Inventor, SolidWorks DSS or Pro Engineer that allows engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and their design schemes. CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytical element method allows engineers to create design models that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
This allows the products and components to be checked for any deficiencies; assessing fit and assembly; learning ergonomics; and to analyze the characteristics of static and dynamic systems such as pressure, temperature, electromagnetic emissions, electric current and voltage, the level of digital logic, fluid flow, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally governed by the use of product data management software.
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software to produce CNC machine instructions; manufacturing process management software for production techniques; EDA for printed circuit boards (PCBs) and circuit schemes for electronic engineers; MRO application for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to assist the development of goods collectively has been known as product life cycle management (PLM).
Social context
The technical profession is involved in various activities, from large collaborations at the community level, as well as smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are required for some sort of financial institution: a company, a pool of investors, or a government. Some types of engineering that are minimally limited by these issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering.
With its natural techniques have interconnection with society, culture and human behavior. Any product or construction used by modern society is influenced by techniques. The results of engineering activities affect the changing environment, society and economy, and their application brings with it responsibility and public security.
Engineering projects can be the subject of controversy. Examples of different disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of sports vehicles and oil extraction. In response, several western engineering firms have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.
Techniques are a key driver of human innovation and development. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, has a very small engineering capacity that resulted in many African countries unable to develop essential infrastructure without outside assistance. The achievement of many Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of adequate engineering capacity to develop sustainable infrastructure and technology development.
All development and overseas aid NGOs take advantage of many engineers to implement solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use the technique directly for the good of mankind:
- Unlimited Engineer
- Engineer Against Poverty
- Registered Engineer for Disaster Relief
- Engineer for the Sustainable World
- Engineering for Change
- Engineering Ministries International
Engineering companies in many developed countries face significant challenges with regard to the number of trained professional engineers, as opposed to the amount of retirement. This problem is very prominent in the UK where the technique has a bad image and low status. There are many negative economic and political issues that can cause this, as well as ethical issues. It is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an "image crisis", rather than fundamentally an unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid major problems in the UK and other western economies.
Code of ethics
Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of conduct to guide members and inform the public at large. National Society of Professional Engineers code of ethics states:
Technique is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to demonstrate the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Techniques have a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for everyone. Thus, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness and equity, and should be dedicated to protecting public health, safety and well-being. Engineers must work under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the principles of the highest ethical behavior.
In Canada, many engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.
Relationships with other disciplines
Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create a world that has never existed before.
There is an overlap between science and engineering practice; in the field of engineering, one applies science. Both fields of business depend on accurate observations of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematical and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental tools or creating prototypes. In contrast, in the process of development tech engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for now, scientists or rather "engineering scientists".
In the book What The Engineers Know and How They Know It, Walter Vincenti insists that engineering research has a different character from scientific research. First, it often deals with areas where physics or basic chemistry is well understood, but the problem itself is too complex to be solved in the right way.
There are "real and important" differences between engineering and physics that are similar to any science-related field of science. Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while techniques use knowledge for the practical application of principles. The first equates understanding to a mathematical principle while the second measures the variables involved and creates technology. For technology, physics is auxiliary technology and in a way considered as applied physics. Although physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do the work of the engineer. A physicist usually requires additional and relevant training. Physicists and engineers are involved in various types of work. But PhD physicists who specialize in the technology and applied sciences sector are graduated as technologists, R & amp; D Systems Engineer and Engineer.
An example of this is the use of a numerical approach to the Navier-Stokes equation to describe the aerodynamic flow in an aircraft, or the use of the Miner rule to calculate the fatigue damage. Second, engineering research uses many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.
As stated by Fung
Techniques are very different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that are not in nature. Engineers emphasize innovation and invention. To realize a discovery, the engineer must put his ideas concretely, and design something that can be used by people. Something can be complex systems, tools, gadgets, materials, methods, computing programs, innovative experiments, new solutions to problems, or improvements to what already exists. Because the design must be realistic and functional, it must have the geometry, dimensions, and characteristics of the data specified. In the past, engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the information needed to make design decisions. Most often, they are limited by inadequate scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and mechanics. Often they have to add knowledge relevant to their profession. So engineering science is born.
Although engineering solutions use scientific principles, engineers should also consider safety, efficiency, economics, reliability, and building or ease of fabrication and environmental capabilities, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in case of failure of the solution.
Medicine and biology
The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important general relationship between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Drugs aim to maintain, improve, improve and even replace the functioning of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace some body functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers. The field of bionics and medical bionics is dedicated to studying synthetic implants related to natural systems.
In contrast, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worthy of study and dedicated to imitating its many functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to areas such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There is also a substantial interdisciplinary interaction between engineering and medicine.
Both fields provide solutions to real-world problems. This often requires moving forward before the phenomenon is completely understood in a stricter scientific sense and therefore experimental and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the functioning of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.
The heart for example functions like a pump, the frame is like a structure connected with a lever, the brain generates an electrical signal, etc. This similarity as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the terrain. biomedical techniques that use concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging science branches, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as system modeling and computational analysis, to biological system descriptions.
Art
There is a connection between engineering and art, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even as far as this discipline can sometimes be incorporated into the University's Engineering Faculty).
The Art Institute of Chicago, for example, held an exhibition of NASA's space design art. The design of the Robert Maillart bridge is considered by some to have been deliberately artistic. At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that links art and engineering.
Among the famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a famous Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the relationship between art and engineering.
Business
Business Engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and change management. Engineering management or "Engineering management" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or engineering industry sectors. Requests for engineers who focus on management (or from opposing perspectives, managers with an understanding of techniques), have resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills required for this role. During the course of engineering management, students will develop industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, in addition to business administration knowledge, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational principles and methods of psychology. Professional engineers often train as certified management consultants in highly specialized fields of management consulting applied to engineering practice or engineering sectors. This work is often associated with the transformation of large-scale complex business or business process management initiatives in the field of aerospace and defense, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceuticals, food and beverages, electricity & electronics, power distribution & amp; generation, utility and transportation systems. The combination of technical engineering practices, management consulting practices, industry sector knowledge, and change management skills enable professional engineers who also qualify as management consultants to lead key business transformation initiatives. This initiative is usually sponsored by Level C executives.
More fields
In political science, the term technique has been borrowed to study the subject of social engineering and political engineering, which is concerned with the formation of political and social structures using engineering methodologies combined with the principles of political science. Financial engineering also borrows the term.
See also
- List
- Glossary
- Related subject
References
Further reading
External links
- Statement of positions of the National Society of Professional Engineers on License and Qualification for Practice
- National Academy of Engineering (NAE)
- American Society for Technical Education (ASEE)
- US Congress Library Engineering in History bibliography
- Technical video at high school level.
- The history of technical bibliography at the University of Minnesota
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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