Mustang District (Nepali: ??????? ?????? Listen Ã, ), part of Province no. 4 in the Dhawalagiri Region in northern Nepal, is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal. The district, with Jomsom as its headquarters, covers an area of ​​3,573Ã,²Ã,² and has a population (2011) of 13,452. This district circles the Himalayas and extends northward to the Tibetan plateau. Mustang is one of the most remote areas in Nepal and is the second in terms of population density.
The Mustang is an ancient forbidden kingdom, bordered by the Tibetan plateau and protected by some of the highest peaks in the world, including Annapurna 8000 meters and Dhaulagiri. The strict regulations of tourists here have helped defend the Tibetan tradition. The Upper Mustang was a demilitarized area restricted to 1992, making it one of the most preserved areas in the world due to its relative isolation from the outside world, with the majority of the population still speaking traditional Tibetan. The name "Mustang" comes from the Tibetan word meaning "Plain of Aspiration." Mustang Hulu was opened for foreigners in 1992 (current annual quota of 1,000 people). This is a popular area for trekking and can be visited throughout the year (regardless of season).
Mustang District is located in the Dhawalagiri zone. Its headquarters are Jomsom. This district covers an area of ​​3573 km 2 and has a population of 14,981. Its altitude ranges from 1,372 to 8,167 meters (Mount Dhaulagiri, the 8th highest mountain in the world), with some peaks above 7,000 meters. Agriculture and livestock are the main jobs. All districts are included in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal's largest protected area. Development programs, tourism management, etc. are mainly overseen by the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), a division of the National Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC). The kingdom of Mustang is dependent on the Kingdom of Nepal since 1795, but was abolished by the Government of the Republic of Nepal on October 7, 2008. The Mustang monarchy ceased on October 7, 2008, on the orders of the Nepali Government, after Nepal became a federal democratic republic. According to the Human Development Index, Mustang is a relatively rich region with a GDP per capita of US $ 2,466.
Video Mustang District
Geography
Mustang, Nepal's second densely populated district, is flanked by Nepal's Manang district, which has the fewest populations, to the east and the Dolph, with the lowest lows third, to the west. The Tibetan border stretches north from the Mustang border. It is a trans-Himalayan highland region spread over 3,640 square kilometers in an area virtually absent in the northern Himalayas. Geographically this highland plateau is part of the Tibetan plateau. This piece of torn-shaped dirt leads north to western Tibet which is caught in the shadow of Dhaulagiri rain in the south and west and Annapurna Massif in the north and east.
The average elevation of the Mustang is 13,200 feet (2,500 m), coming to the peak at 8.167m - the summit of Dhaulagiri. It is a vast and arid valley, distinguished by eroded canyons, vivid clear-colored rock formations, and barren wasteland deserts. This area receives an average annual rainfall of less than 260 mm at Jomsom in the Lower Mustang. Spring and autumn are generally dry, but some rainfall is carried by the summer wind season, which averages 133 mm in Jomsom between 1973 and 2000. The average monthly minimum air temperature falls to -2.7 Â ° C in season cool while the maximum monthly air temperature reaches 23.1 Â ° C in summer. Both daily and large daily temperature variations. Only about 40.3 square kilometers, about 1 percent of the total land area, cultivated and 1,477 square kilometers, about 40%, is a meadow. Kora La at 4,660 meters (15,290 ft) in elevation has been considered the lowest drivable lane between the Tibetan Plateau and Indian subcontinent.
District heights range from 1640m near Kopchepani below Kunjo VDC to 7061m in North Nilgiri on top of sea level. Peaks above 6000m in Mustang district are the tops of Tukuche (6920m), South Nilgiri (6839m), Yakwakang Peak (6462m), and Damodar Himal (6004m). Thorung Pass (5416m), arguably the highest and busiest pass in the world, is located in this district. The district has 134.16 km international long board with Tibet Autonomous Region in China where there are 16 pillars of the no. 18-33.
Kali Gandaki River is a very important feature of the district. The source, located near the Tibetan border, coincides with the Tibetan border and the Ganges-Brahmaputra watershed. From there, it flows south to the northern Indian plains through the ancient kingdom of Mustang. The river flows through a deep and deep canyon, just south of the capital Mustang, Lo Manthang, then widened as it approached Kagbeni where a high Himalayan range began to approach. The river continues south past Jomsom, Marpha, and Tukuche to the deepest. from the canyon about 7 km south of Tukuche in the Lete area. The valley then extends over the border of Mustang and Myagdi districts. Geographically, the Lower Mustang lies between the Tibetan plateau in the Northern Himalayas and high in the South. The region between the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas is called the Trans-Himalayas.
The Gandaki Gorge or Andha Galchi river, measured by the difference between the height of the river and the highest peak altitude on either side, is the deepest gorges in the world. The direct part of the river between Dhaulagiri and Annapurna I (7 km downstream from Tukuche) is at an altitude of 2,520 m or 8,270 ft, 5,571 m or 18,278 feet lower than Annapurna I. The main summit along the canyon includes Dhaulagiri (8.167 m or 26,795 ft) and Tukuche (6.920 m or 22.703 ft) to the west and Nilgiri Central (6,940 m or 22,769 ft) and Annapurna (8,091 m or 26,545 ft) to the east.
Maps Mustang District
History
Much of Mustang's history is about legends rather than documented facts. However, it is believed that the Mustang or Kingdom of Lo was once part of the Ngari area of ​​Tibet and the collection of loose feudal plantations. Although Mustangs live within the geographical boundaries of Nepal, their history is also related to Tibetan religion, culture, and geography. It is often closely related to the kingdom side by side of Western Tibet and, during other historical periods, is politically linked to Lhasa, the capital of central Tibet. Lo was incorporated into the Tibetan Empire by Songtsen Gampo, the most famous Tibetan king.
Most of Ngari became part of the kingdom of Malla (capital of Sinja in western Nepal) in the 14th century. From the fifteenth to the seventeenth century Mustang controlled trade between the Himalayas and India for its strategic location. In 1380, Lo became an independent empire under Ame Pal. The last royal family traces its line for 25 generations, all the way back to Ame Pal. Ame Pal oversees the establishment and construction of most of the capital Lo and Mustang in Lo Manthang, a surprisingly little walled city changed in appearance from that time period. The remains of these kingdoms are the intact Lo Kingdom, an area adjacent to the northern third of the Mustang District.
In 1769, troops of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the first King of the Kingdom of Gorkha and the Shah dynasty, united what is the land of many small kingdoms to forge the kingdom of Nepal. Prior to that many of the Mustangs today were ruled by kings from Jumla, the region to the southwest, and independent monarchs and feudal lords. At the end of the 18th century the kingdom was annexed by Nepal and became a dependency of the kingdom of Nepal since 1795. Swedish explorer Sven Hedin visited the gap in the head of Kali Gandaki Gorge in 1904. British Tibetan expert, David Snellgrove, visited and researched the Buddhist Temple and Buddhist monastery on 1956, 1960-61 and 1978.
During the late 1950s and 60s, Mustang became a center for Tibetan rebels who were involved in small operations against Tibetan mergers into the People's Republic of China in 1959. The Tibetan guerrilla group Chushi Gangdruk operated out of Mustang Atas in order to invade the position The PLA in Tibet, which led to a border incident that led to the killing of a misguided Nepali officer as a Tibetan rebel. The guerrillas are assisted by the CIA and Tibet Khampa. In the 1970s, after US President Richard Nixon visited China, the CIA withdrew its support and the Nepali government dismissed the Tibetan fighters. In the book Merlins Keep, a novel by Madeleine Brent (aka Peter O'Donnell) published in 1977, the Mustang is the setting for young heroes and further adventures. In 1961, the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Nepal formally signed a border agreement. the boundary arrangement between Mustang and TAR is set slightly north of the traditional boundary marker bordered by a stupa on 29 Â ° 18? 14? N 83Ã, Â ° 58? 7? E .
Until 2008, the Kingdom of Lo or Hulu Mustang is an ethnic Tibetan kingdom and the power of the Kingdom of Nepal. Sovereignty allows a certain degree of freedom in the local government of Nepal's central government. Although still recognized by many Mustang residents, the monarchy ceased to exist on October 7, 2008, on the orders of the Government of Nepal. After the civil war that overthrew the Nepal monarchy, it became a republic. Mustang became another district in Nepal that lost its status as a tributary kingdom it enjoyed since the late 18th century. The Mustang is the setting for most of The Kingdom , a novel by Clive Cussler and Grant Blackwood published in 2011. In December 1999, Ogyen Trinley Dorje, claimant 17 Karmapa left Tibet through this area.. In response, China soon built a border fence. There is a PLA border post several miles on the Chinese side, it is the most western border outpost in the Tibetan Military District. The outpost was renovated in 2009 to have modern facilities.
The last official and then unofficial king (Mustang king or gyelpo) is Jigme Dorje Palbar Bista (1930-2016), Bista succeeds his father Angun Tenzing Tandul in 1964, and whose offspring are from Ame Pal, who founded the Lo Empire six and a half centuries earlier, He died on December 16, 2016 after living mostly retirement life in Kathmandu since 2008 when Nepal abolished its own monarchy. Sky Cave
One of the interesting features of this district are the thousands of residences on the cliffs, some very inaccessible. The Mustang Caves or the Celestial Cave in Nepal are a collection of about 10,000 man-made caves unearthed on the side of the valley in Mustang. Several groups of archaeologists and researchers have explored these overlapping caves and discovered some human bodies and human skeletons that are at least 2,000-3,000 years old. The exploration of these caves by conservators and archaeologists has also led to the discovery of paintings, sculptures, manuscripts and valuable Buddhist artefacts from the 12th to 14th centuries. The caves are located on the steep valley wall near Kali Gandaki River in the Upper Mustang.
In 2007, explorers from the United States, Italy and Nepal discovered the art and paintings of ancient Buddhist decorations, manuscripts and pottery in the Mustang cave near Lo Manthang, dating from the 13th century. In 2008, a number of 600-year-old human skeletons were discovered by the second expedition. They also rediscovered invaluable texts containing rituals from Bon and Buddhism, some illuminated. The research group continues to investigate this cave, because it is unclear who built the cave and why it was built. According to theory, they may date back to 8-10,000 BC when the Mustang is much greener.
In 2007, a shepherd found a collection of 55 cave paintings near the village depicting the life of the Buddha. A series of at least twelve caves are found north of Annapurna and near the village of Lo Manthang, dotted with ancient Buddhist paintings and situated on a steep cliff at an altitude of 14,000 feet (4,300 m). These paintings show the influence of Newari, which dates from about the 13th century, and also contains Tibetan scripts executed with ink, silver and gold, and pre-Christian pottery fragments. Explorers found stupas, decorative arts, and paintings depicting various Buddhist forms, often with disciples, petitioners and companions, with several mural paintings showing a sub-tropical theme containing palm trees, burgeoning Indian textiles and birds.
Administration
The Mustang District is part of the Dhaulagiri Zone in the Western Development Zone of Nepal. In 2017, the Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development (Nepal) rearranges the area into five rural Gross or rural municipalities with five territories each, different from the old VDC. Since the establishment of the Mustang Kingdom until the restructuring of Nepal's local government, the district was divided into one parliamentary election, nine Ilakas, and 16 Village Development Committee (VDCs). While an Ilaka serves as a local development unit, the VDC serves as a local political unit.
Before the VDC there was a system of village councils from 1960 to 1990, which formed the lowest strata of local government. In order to be entitled to shared resources such as grasslands, forests and water for irrigation, it is important for households to become members and to participate in community councils. The granting of such rights is the prerogative of the council. All households in the village have representatives on the board. A gemba (council leader), chosen from a male member of the council between 18 and 60 years old, is appointed on an annual rotation. The Board resolves disputes, calls for community work when necessary, and shares rights and responsibilities to community members.
Individual households manage their private farms, while the council manages community farming systems. Grasslands and forests are exclusive to every community, where every household has the right to graze or collect timber, although collecting leaves and timber from trees in private ownership is more common.
Division
Traditionally, the Mustang district has been divided into four social and geographical areas. From south to north they are: Satsae Thak (also known as Thak Khola below), Panchgaon (Top Thak Khola) and Baragaon (largely regarded as part of Thak Khola, sometimes called Low Lo) in Lower Mustang and Lo Tsho Dyun or (also known simply as Lo) in the Upper Mustang, although it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish between areas along social lines because different castes and ethnic people begin to live throughout the region.
Thak Khola
Along the Gandaki River River in Lower Mustang, Thakali is the dominant ehtnic group. The area, extending from Ghasa to the south to the central Jomsom district in the north, known as Thak Khola ("Thak River"). The area was ruled by a Tibetan ruler until 1786, when it was included in Nepal. Historically, the territory was under the rule of Tibet, but after 1786 it was included in Nepal. Ethnicity, Thakalis is categorized as Tamang Thakalis of Thak Satsae, and Thakali's Mawali and Yhulkasompaimhi Thakalis from Panchgaon. The language spoken by Thakalis falls in the category of Tibeto-Burman, and they believe in Buddhism.
Thak Satsae
Thak Satsae ("Seven Hundred Thak") is the southernmost sub-region of Mustang. This sub-region extends from the village of Ghasa in the south to the northern trading town Tukuche, bordering Jomsom (district headquarters). Traditionally believed to have 700 households, this sub-region includes 13 villages along Thak Khaki, Gandaki Kali segment located south of Jomsom (also called Tehragaon or "thirteen villages"): Ghasa, Taglung, Dhamphu, Kunjo, Titi, Sauru Khanti, Lete, Kobang, Nakung, Nauricot, Bhurjungkot, Larjung and Tukuche. They are distributed in four VDCs: Lete, Kowang, Kunjo and Tukuche
The area of ​​Satsae Thak or Thak Khola is home to Tamang people, the largest group Thakalis in Mustang, whow known to outsiders only as Thakkalis. The Thakkalis of Mustang, known for their enterprising skills as merchants, innkeepers and hoteliers, are divided into four clans: Khuki (Bhattachan), Choki (Gauchan), Dinjen (Sherchan) and Salki (Tulachan). The introduction of horticulture and tourism has made this region prosperous. Various types of liquor, Jam and Jelly consisting of apples, apricots and plums are very popular commodities in this area.
Panchgaon
Panchgaon ("five villages") is located between the trading town of Tukche and the Muktinath pilgrimage site. Outside the five villages - Marpha, Chhairo, Chimang, Syang and Thini - this area also includes new settlements such as Jomsom, Drumpa and Samle. All these settlements are distributed in two VDCs: Jomsom and Marpha. Jomsom is the district headquarters, Thini is historically one of the most significant sites in the whole district, and Marpha is very popular for apple orchard and apple brandy. Panchgaon was once ruled by the king of Sum (or Sumpo) Garabdzong (near the present Thini) and the bem-chag agreement especially with the foundations and boundaries of the kingdom. One of the indispensable sources for studying Mustang history is the village record or bem-chag stored in the five original villages including Thini, Syang, Marpha, Chairo and Cimang.
The dominant ethnic group is Thakali, also known as Panchgaonle ("people of Panchgaon"). People from Marpha, Chhairo and Chimang write clan names as their surnames. The four clans are Hirachan, Lalchan, Jwarchan, and Pannachan. But people from Thini and Syang write their surnames as just Thakali to identify themselves. Among the villages of Panchgaon, Thanksgiving Matures are from Marpha and Yhulkasompaimhi, Yhulgasummi or Yhulgasumpa Thakalis from Thini, Syang and Chimang. While more than 80 percent of Tamang Thakali is found outside Thak Khola, nearly half of the total population of Matar Thakali still live in the village of Marpha. Thini village, one of the oldest Thakali villages in the Thak Khola region is not included in Panchgaonle (the people of Panchgaon), but they categorize themselves in Tingaonle Thakali (people from three villages) that include Thini, Syang and Chimang. According to informants from Thini, they do not categorize people from Marpha and Chhairo as the original Thakali. They do not even have socio-religious connections such as weddings and other local religious activities with Marpha and Chhairo.
Baragaon
Baragaon ("The Twelve Villages") is a northern sub-region located between Jomsom and Lo area, in and around the Muktinath valley, extending from southern Ghilling to Lubra located north of Jomsom. Sometimes called Glo Bosmad ("Low Lo"), because he shares many of Lo's precise geographical features, with some parts falling into Mustang Hulu. The people who live are not categorized as Thakali. They are known to outsiders as Bhotia ("Tibet") or Baragaonle ("Orang Baragaon") and they share cultural similarities with Lo, although they often use Gurung, Bista or Thakuri as their surname for the purpose of status emulation.
The sub-region now consists of 19 main villages - Kagbeni, Khinga, Dakardzong, Jharkot, Muktinath, Chongur, Jhong, Putak, Purong, Lubra, Pagling, Phalek, Tiri, Chhusang, Tetang, Tangbe, Tsele, Ghyaga and Sammar. These villages are spread over four VDCs in southern Lochhoden: Kagbeni, Muktinath, Jhong and Chhusang. The central city of Baragaon is Kagbeni, at the meeting of the Muktinath River or Dzong (Jhong) and the Gandaki River. Kagbeni is on a well-traveled route to the Muktinath pilgrimage site. The Tibet dialect (Pheke) applies here, though the Tangbe, Chhusang, Tetang, Tsaile and Ghyaker also speak Seke, a language closely associated with Thakali.
The Muktinath Temple is located at an altitude of 3,710 meters near the village of Ranipauwa at the foot of Mount Thorong La in the Muktinath Valley. It is considered to be 106 among 108 Divya Desams (premium temples) considered sacred by the Sri Vaishnava sect. The ancient name of this place in the Sri Vaishnava literature is Thiru Saligramam . The temple holds Saligram Shila, which is considered a natural form of the Hindu Lord Sriman Narayan. It is also one of Shakti's 51 peeled. Buddhists call it Chumig Gyatsa, which in Tibetan means "Hundred Waters". Although this temple has the origin of Vaishnav, this temple is also respected in Buddhism. For the Tibetan Buddhists, Muktinath is a very important place for dakini, the goddess known as the Dancers of Heaven, and one of 24 Tantric places. They understand murti as a manifestation of Avalokite? Vara, who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas.
Lo Tsho Dyun
The restricted northern Mustangs are known as Lopa. But, they use surnames like Bista and Gurung outside their land. The forbidden area, which lies between the Tibetan border and the village of Ghemi, encompasses the historic estate of Lo Tsho Dyun ("the seven districts of Lo" in the local Tibetan dialect of Loke). Lo Manthang is the only walled city of Nepal and is also known as the cultural capital of this region. The palace and other buildings within the walls were built by Ame Pal, the first king of Lo, during a period of the 15th century. His line of descendants is recognized as the Mustang royal family. Area Lo Tsho Dyun consists of Ghiling, Ghemi, Dhakmar, Marang, Tsarang, Dhi, Surkhang, Yara, Ghara, Tangya, Dhea, Lo Monthang, Nhenyol, Chhoser, Nyamdo, Kimaling, Thinkar, Phuwa and Namgyal. They are spread over six VDCs: Dhami, Charang, Lo Manthang, Chhoser, Chhonhup, and Surkhang.
Lo Manthang
Lo Manthang, Village Development Committee with 876 people living in 178 households, is the capital of the old kingdom of Lo, which covers the northern two-thirds of the district and is known as Mustang Hulu. Although the district capital is Jomsom, the traditional Tibetan region lies to the north of Kagbeni. The old capital of Lo Manthang, a square-walled city in Plain of Prayers, is the current king's residence.
Lo Monthang features the King's Palace and many restored monasteries by European art historians. The village is famous for its high white mud brick walls, gompas and King or Royal or King's Palace, a nine-story building built around 1400. There are four main temples: Jampa Lhakhang or Jampa Gompa, the oldest, built in the early twentieth century, 15 and also known as "the House of God"; Thubchen Gompa, a large red meeting hall and gompa built at the end of the 15th century and located in the southwest of Jampa Gompa; Chodey Gompa, now the main city gompa; and Choprang Gompa, known as "New Gompa". It is noted by scholars as one of the most well preserved medieval castles and candidates for UNESCO World Heritage status. The windy and dry land around Lo Manthang, located at an altitude between 3000m and 3500m, is not suitable for agriculture at all. However, there are a number of small rivers, where willows grow together with wheat, potatoes and barley. The most famous festival here is Tiji, which generally takes place in April/May, with long dancing dancing in the village square for three days.
Lopa people
Lo Manthang is the socio-cultural and political center of the Lopa tribe, the native Mustang. The houses of their brick mud resembled a Tibetan house, whitewashed outside and decorated inside. They built their house from stone, making the roof of a thinly carved stone box. The roof is very uniform and smooth; and in every corner, a small box was built so that a prayer flag could be hung there. Most homes are built adjacent and have no windows, only holes in the walls to protect against the high speed winds that go to the mountains. Lopa's house is almost never built towards the South because of the ferocity of this wind. This is a loss in the summer when the house gets very hot due to lack of appropriate ventilation. Therefore, people often sleep on the porch during the summer to avoid the heat.
Lopa is mainly a farmer, a shepherd, or a trader. Tibet was traditionally traded with Lopas, but in the 18th century a salt trade monopoly was given to the Thakali people in the south, cutting Lopa with much income. In 1959, Tibetans began to cross the border and encroached on small plots of Lopas used to feed their sheep, yak, donkeys and donkeys, causing Lopa's wealth to deteriorate further.
Socially, they are divided into three groups, one of which consists of a royal heritage. The rules of society are based on values ​​of honor and honor. Their family structure is also based on this and other traditions. They practice Tibetan Buddhism. Sometimes marriages are done by parental agreement, another time by capturing or eloping. Like everyone else who lives in a hard field, they are generous and kind, and also a shrewd businessman. One tradition says that the eldest son will inherit the family property. When he does so, the next son should be a Buddhist monk.
Nature
Kali Kali Gandaki valley forms the border for east and west demarcate for the distribution of Mustang flora and fauna. It is rich in medium and trans-Himalayan biodiversity with the most common flora and fauna for those very rare. Although the upstream diversity of Mustang Hulu is relatively well studied and documented, only limited information is available on Mustang Bawah biodiversity.
Fauna
Mustang is rich in trans-Himalayan biodiversity, where five species of zooplankton, seven species of nematodes, two mollusc species, one annelid species, 25 insect species (seven water insects and 18 species of butterflies), a species of spider, 11 species amphibians, eight species lizards, five species of snakes, 105 bird species and 29 mammal species have been recorded. Five species of butterflies, extinct molluscs (shaligram), two frog species, one reptile species, two bird species (Tibetan sandgrouse and Eurasian eagle-owl), and seven mammal species recorded only in Mustangs in Nepal. Of the 18 species of butterflies recorded in the Mustang, two new species and three endemic species in the area. Mustang is a habitat for snow leopard, musk deer, Tibetan wild donkey and Tibetan gazelle. The only native fish species, recorded at 3475 m above sea level on the Ghami Khola river in Dhami, has been identified as the highest elevation fish in Nepal. Six of the mammal species recorded from the Mustang area are protected by the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973), while seven mammal species fall under different threat categories from the IUCN Red Data Book.
Flora
The Mustang District Vegetation is a type of meadow and consists of grasslands interspersed with shrubs. Cold desiccating winds, short planting seasons, low rainfall and cold air temperatures limit the standing biomass resulting from steppe vegetation. Scrub is dominated by Juniperus squamata on sloping slopes, while the steep slopes are dominated by Caragana gerardiana, Chrysosphaerella brevispina and Rosa sericea, as well as various Ephedra species and Lonicera. Vegetation above 5,000 meters mainly consists of Rhododendron anthopogon , as well as Potentilla biflora and various species Saxifraga. Little or no vegetation is found over 5,800 meters.
The forest covers 3.24 percent of the total land of Mustang. Forest cover ends near Jomsom and is very limited in the Upper Mustang, which falls in the Alpine climate area. It is distributed on one small patch each in Lo Manthang and Dhami VDCs, and seven patches in Chhuksang VDC. District vegetation can be categorized into eight species, including six types of mixed forests identified by dominant species - Pina wallichiana, Hula utilis, Hippophae salicifolia , Caragana gerardiana , Lonicera spinosa and Caragana gerardiana , Juniperus - and grassland/meadow is covered with Poaceae. The lower Mustang offers wide mixed forest such as Acer species, conifers (especially pines) and rhododendrons (Nepali: ????????), and at higher elevation conifers with birch trees Betula utilis .
Mustang is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants with very high economic and ethnomedicinal values. Locals use a number of plants for food, spices, fiber, medicines, fuel, dyes, tannins, chewing gum, resins, religious purposes, roofing materials, handicrafts, etc. Drug use from 121 plant species was recorded in a study. 121 of these plants include 49 vascular plants and 2 mushroom species of 92 genera. These plants, including different parts of the same plant, are used to treat 116 different diseases. The most common type of medicinal plant is herbs (73%), followed by shrubs, trees, and, finally, climbers. More than 200 species of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) and medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) have been identified in Mustangs. This plant is found for use as a drug (50 species), food (33), fuel (27), fence (24), fodder 19, ritual objects (19), decorations (8), manure (7) , dye/soap (3), psychoactive (3), and construction materials (2 species).
Demographics
The district is divided into Upper and Bottom Mustang. Two-thirds north of the county (Upper Mustang or former Kingdom), Tibetan language and culture apply, is home to Lopa, the Bhotiya people. A southern part or Thak is the homeland of Thakali who speaks Thakali dialect and possesses synthesized Tibetan and Nepalese culture. The main languages ​​used are Bhote, Sherpa, and Nepali. The main caste/ethnic groups are Gurung (45%) and Thakali (17%).
When one goes south, the Tibetan culture becomes less clear. The residents of Lo in Upper Mustang are Tibet in language and culture, while residents of Panchgaon and Thak Satsae in Lower Mustang speak Thakali, Tibeto-Burman. Middle-aged Mustang from Baragaon speaks Tibetan and a language similar to Thakali. According to Aita Bahadur Thakali (Dinas Peternakan Dinas Kabupaten, Jomsom) 75 percent of its population are Buddhist and 25 percent are Hindu.
There are 3,305 households in the district. Distribution of households by ethnic/caste group shows that around 59.3 percent are Gurung, 24.5 percent Thakali and 8.2 percent Us/Peace. Magar, Thakuri and other accounts 3.1, 2.9 and 2.1 percent of the population respectively. Gurung and Thakali are the dominant ethnic groups in the Mustang district population. In the district as a whole, Janajati's population accounted for 86.8 percent of the total population while Dalit accounted for 8.2 percent and the rest was 5.0 percent.
According to demographic data published by the Population Census and Housing 2011 (National Report), 13,452 people living in Mustang spread over an area of ​​3,573 km 2 . Which makes it the second densest district, and with a population density of 4 per km 2 , also the densest second most populous district. 7,093 or they were male, and 6,359 were women. Among Gurung, Thakkali and Bhote, there are also 33 foreigners - 13 Indians, 3 Chinese, and 17 from other countries. The first marriage age for Mustang people varies - 15-19 Years 1.603, 20-24 Years 3,016, 25-29 Years 1.677, and others 1.030 (Number of married 7,326). According to the 1992 Census, the total population of districts is 14,319, excluding local residents such as government officials and the army, police, development workers, and Tibetan refugees.
Religion
In 2011, the Mustang population is divided between 60.17% Buddhists (8,095 people) and 37.46% Hindus (5,040 people). There are also 152 Christians, 98 BÃÆ'¶ns, 19 Kiratis, 5 animists or Prakritists and 3 Muslims.
Health
For 14,981 people, Mustang district has a total of 17 health posts, with health posts for population rations of 1: 881. While it is better than the national average of 1: 5663, this post is inaccessible because of its remote location and rough terrain. There are 10 health posts and five health sub-posts scattered throughout Lete, Kobang, Tukche, Marpha, Eklebhatti, Jarkot, Kagbeni and Chame. Jomsom has the only hospital.
Due to low access to facilities and other socio-cultural factors, for most people in Mustang, traditional herbal medicines are a popular way of medical treatment and Amchi (traditional Tibetan physician) is a local medical expert. Local Amchi uses 72 species of medicinal plants to treat 43 human diseases. They use various forms of medicine including pasta (60 types), powders (48), decoctions (35), tablets (7), pills (5), cold infusions (5), etc. means, given by oral, topical and other routes. Most people here have deep faith in Amchi .
Amchi has a unique method of preserving drug quality. They collect medicinal plants always by themselves, as only those with extensive experience to identify the right plants. Also, only Amchi knows when to collect plants, as time, while very important in capturing the active principles of plants, varies every day, even months.
Then they store their potion in a bag made of Moschus chrysogaster (Himalayan musk deer), tied twice with string. Binding the herb in kite deer skin helps, according to amchi , remains effective for several years. Horns and urine from deer musk and turtle bone, as well as parts of other animals are also used along with parts of the plant.
They used stone slabs to grind their medicine, because they believed that the heat created by the electric grinder would lower the active principle of plant powder, reducing its quality. The starchy materials are then mixed with water. A sufficient number of additives are also added. Plant parts are usually made using water, heat or cold, as a solvent (100 species), but occasionally the drug is prepared with milk (14 species), honey (2), jaggery sugar or Indian sugar (2), ghee or Indian clarified. butter (2) and oil (1) in preparing round or rectangular pills. This mixture is then boiled until the water completely evaporates so easily forming a pill.
Education
The literacy rate in Mustang district is relatively low, mainly due to its exceptional rural character and remote district location. The pace of development begins late in Mustang district, including communications and transportation. Schools in districts are mostly operated by non-governmental groups with private support, with negligible state involvement. The textbooks were transported by mules to reach remote villages, which consequently came too late. Most teachers, employed in contracts, can not hold conversations in the proper language of instruction, the mother tongue of the students. The curriculum developed with European funding is largely unknown to government teachers. District school superintendents also do not visit these areas regularly due to their remoteness. Total population aged 5 & amp; above in the Mustang is 12,588, of which 8,334 (66.20%) can read & amp; write, 305 (2.42%) can only read 305, 3,945 (31,33%) can not read or write.
Of the total of 8,451 people who can read, 275 are beginners, 3,650 primers (1-5), 1,631 lower middle (6 -8), 721 secondary (9 -10), 836 SLC & amp; equivalent, 509 medium & amp; equivalent, graduate & amp; equivalent to 208, post graduate & amp; above 51, Others 73, Informal education 471, Unspecified 26. By 2017, Most students in Mustang are not in age-appropriate classes and are not continuing to tertiary education. It should be noted that education has increased dramatically in the last two decades at Upper Mustang, and some schools supported by international charities are better than many rural schools in Nepal, although it is uncertain whether schools can be sustainable.
A total of 768 people have SLC or higher education in 2011. Of those 164 studied Humanities and Arts, 170 studied Business and Administration, 167 Education, 43 Social & Science Behavior, 47 Science, 13 Engineering, Manufacturing and Construction, 12 Health, 11 Agriculture, Forestry & amp; Fisheries, 9 Mathematics and Statistics, 8 Laws, 3 Computing, and 1 Journalism and Information. 120 did not state their academic flow in the 2011 census. In 2017, the Nepal Academy of Fine Arts recently organized an art workshop for students from the Mustang district of Jomsom.
Economy
Mustangs are an important route across the Himalayas between Tibet and Nepal. Many salt caravans have traveled through Mustangs in the past. Once a major place of trade in salt and grains between Tibet and the southern hills of Nepal, the Mustang District in the western Himalayas of Nepal remains a trading route to this day. For centuries, caravans roamed along the Kali Gandaki trade salt, yak wool, cereals, dried meat and other spices in Tibet, China and India. and Kali Gandaki canyon was used as a trade route between India and Tibet for centuries. The Kora La mountain range is one of the oldest routes between the two regions. It has historically been used to trade salt between Tibet and Nepal's kingdom.
The border has been closed since the 1960s. However, there is a semi-annual cross-border trade where borders are open to local traders. In 2012, Nepal and China agree to open 6 other official border crossings, Kora La being one of them. In July 2016, the Nepalese government announced that it expects the border crossings to be open in and year to become the third most important crossing between the two countries.
Kora La is currently being planned as a crossroads border of vehicles between China and Nepal. Nepal expects to regain some of Mustang's strategic interests with road construction to connect China with Nepal through Mustang. Once completed, the road is expected to be a highly accessible Himalayan corridor and the district is expected to change significantly. There is also a fear of losing culture and regional identity.
Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in districts where 80.65 percent of people are involved in the district. Mustangs are involved in traditional forms of general agro-economy to the mountains of Nepal. Business (6.82%), government services (1.91%), homework (3.50%), employment abroad (3.97%) and others (3.14%) are other types of work other than agriculture.
Many people in Mustang rely on sheep and mountain goats to earn a living. Some of the livestock attraction points are: access to pastures, distance to the La Kora border, and favorable market rates, as well as and technical assistance and subsidies from the District Livestock Service Office. Yak-cow hybrids (called jhopa, or dzo) are used as draft animals. Horses are kept mostly for transportation. By 2016, Mustang earns Nepal a 270 million rupee by exporting 13,000 sheep and 9,000 mountain goats. By 2017, the district supplied at least 25,000 sheep and mountain goats to various Nepali markets during the Dashain festival. It is estimated that 9,000 mountain goats are assumed to be imported from Tibet by 2017, although traditional Tibetan traders are increasingly prioritizing the Chinese market.
In the summer, goats, cattle and sheep are herded daily in swarms of local alpine grasslands. During the winter they are fed with leaves, grass and plant waste, cut and stored in the growing season in preparation for the winter. Livestock provides important fertilizer to maintain soil fertility, and thus a significant link in local agro-pastoral farming systems. Inorganic fertilizers or pesticides are not used.
Mustangs are sometimes called the capital of apples in Nepal. The District Agricultural Development Office (DADO) reports that despite the fact that a total of 1,115 hectares of land is considered suitable for apple farming in Mustangs, apples are grown on only 415 hectares of land. Mustang produces 5,300 tons of apples by 2017, an increase of 800 tons during 2016. Apples prices also increased by 2017. By 2016, apples sold in Nepal rupee 80 have reached ?? 100 by 2017. Barley, wheat and buckwheat are grown on multilevel farms, while vegetables and fruit are grown in orchards. On the Mebrak and Phudzeling sites in Upper Mustang, there is evidence of buckwheat cultivation, barley bare, marijuana, lentils, and other plants dated between 1000 and 400 BC. In Kohla, there is evidence of barley cultivation, free threshing wheat, millet fox, buckwheat and wheat dated 1385-780 BC.
Although agro-pastoralism still provides the socio-economic backbone of Msutang, alternative livelihoods such as tourism, transportation and labor migration now appear along agro-pastoralism. As a result, many have abandoned agriculture or livestock as a common source of livelihood in the Mustangs and neighboring districts of Manag, and especially in Jharkot, for the last few decades. Both the number of people living in the district, their livestock and the number of large households in the village dropped from before. At Muktinath VDC the number of huseholds fell to 169 from the highs of 216 in 2001. Although agro-pastoralism still provides the economic and social backbone of Msutang. Many terraced fields are now abandoned.
Life and lifestyle
The people in the district mostly have small housing units for residences. According to demographic data published by the Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report), Mustang has 3,305 households in the district, the second lowest in Nepal, with an average size of 4.01 households.
Improved transport has brought many changes to the Upper Mustang. According to GMA News Online, "The kerosene lamps have given way to solar panels, denim sneakers have replaced hand-stitched cowhide boots and satellite dishes take over the rooftops," and local Lopa people "exchange Tibetan handspun cloaks to make -in-China jeans. "
When Nepal's state-owned Nepali television first came to the Upper Mustang in 2007, regular people paid 20 rupees (18 cents) for three hours sitting in someone's home. In 2011, 1,033 households had cable television, 1,237 households had radios, and 451 had televisions with no cable connection. 101 households have computers, 48 ​​have internet, 240 have phones, and 2,353 households have cell phones. 89 households have motor vehicles, 224 have motorbikes, 9 have bicycles, and 455 have other vehicles (ie vehicles with animal or human drawn drawings). 202 households have refrigerators. There are seven police stations established in Nechung, Thinkar, Kagbeni, Phedi, Jomsom, Ghasa and Lete. Jharkot and Jhong have post offices, while there are banks, airports and the Nepal High Army and Mountain Battle School in Jomsom.
More than 91.65 percent of the population in this district benefits from guaranteed drinking water supply while 8.35 percent of the population in the district is unsafe. Tap/water pipe is considered a water supply guarantee system. In Mustang district, 3029 households use taps/pipes, 174 use rivers/streams, 76 households use spout water, and 9 households use wells/quwas.
Energy
Mustang District is not much facilitated by the National Electricity Network. Thus, alternative energy sources are mostly used in this district. In the past, diyalo (wood terraces) and pine woods were mostly used to illuminate homes, but now other methods such as iron stoves, solar water heating systems, rear boilers, smoke water heaters, etc. It has taken on a growing popularity. Firewood, cow dung, LP gas are the main fuel used as domestic energy sources in rural Mustang districts. About 54.01 percent of households use wood/firewood as domestic energy for cooking purposes. Cow manure is used by 24.99 percent of households. Most businesses and hotels in the district use LP gas (18.12%) as cooking fuel. Locals collect firewood mostly from the forest.
1,785 households in Mustang use wood or firewood as cooking fuel, 52 households use kerosene, 599 households use LP gas, 826 households use cow dung, 24 use electricity, while cooking fuel of 19 households is unknown. As an illumination fuel, 3,177 uses electricity (including 824 solar electricity using households), 71 uses kerosene, while 39 households do not report their lighting fuel. The bottom of the Mustang was recently connected to the National Electricity Network. The project also tries to connect Mustang Hulu. Currently, most Upper Mustang households benefit from micro-hydro projects. However, these projects can only be operated about 6-7 months due to freezing rivers in winter. The VDC is facilitated with electricity from the National grid of Kunjo, Lete, Kobang, Tukuchhe, Marpha, Jomsom, Kagbeni, Mukthinath and Jhong. A sub-station 504 Kilowatt has been established in Kobang.
For lighting, hydro-electricity is widely used by rural residents. Nearly 71.20 percent of households rely on electricity for light. Areas within the southern VDC - Kunjo, Lete, Kobang, Tukuche, Marpha and Jomsom-connect with national networks for power supplies. Still more than 25.48 percent of households use solar systems for light, kerosene (2.15%) and other energy sources (1.18%). The Chokhopani Hydro Power Project generates 744 KW of electrical energy. There are two micro-hydro plants currently working and two are under construction. Despite significant potential, solar and wind generators have not been successful at Mustang by 2017, although the Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) states that, along with adjacent Manang County, Mustang has a potential of 2500 MW of wind power. 853 households have solar home systems for lighting in 10 VDC.
Himalayan transport and trade
The Mustang is on the ancient trade route between Nepal and Tibet exploiting the lowest of 4,660 meters (15,300 feet) past Kora La through the western Himalayas of Sikkim. This route remained in use until the annexation of Tibetan China in 1950. China finally decided to revitalize trade and in 2001 completed a 20 kilometer (12 mile) road from the international border to Lo Manthang. Across the TAR border is Zhongba County of Shigatse Prefecture. China National Highway 219 follows the Yarlung Tsangpo River valley about 50 kilometers (31 mi) north of the border. To this day Manang and Humde are only accessible on foot or on horseback.
Meanwhile, Nepal is building a road north along the Gandaki River River, up to 9 kilometers (6m) from Lo Manthang in 2010. However, the construction of the road from the south is hampered by difficulties along Kali Gandaki Gorge, and runs gradually. In 2010, the 9 km (6 mi) gap remains but the road has been completed before 2015 and is suitable for vehicles with sufficient distance and four-wheel vehicles. Currently, the easiest and most widely used road corridor, from Kathmandu to Lhasa - is named Arniko Highway in Nepal and China National Highway 318 at TAR - covering 5,125 meters (16,810 ft). It is about 465 meters (1,530 ft) taller than Kora La. Lo Manthang is served 20 kilometers (12 mi) with an unpaved road from the border crossing to Zhongba County in Shigatse Prefecture, TAR. This road continues about 50 kilometers (31 miles) from the border to China National Highway 219, which follows the Yarlung Tsangpo River valley.
Mustang is accessed by air through Jomsom Airport in Jomsom which operates 50 kilometers (31 mi) south of China at the approximate boundary between the southern part of Thak and north Lo of the valley since the 1960s. Jomsom Airport is a STOL airport located on the banks of Kali Gandaki River serving Jomsom and Mustang District. The airport is at 8,976 feet (2,736 m) above sea level on average. It serves as a gateway to the Mustang District which includes Jomsom, Kagbeni, Tangbe, and Lo Manthang, and to the Muktinath temple, which is a popular pilgrimage for Nepalese and Indians.
The airport is capable of handling aircraft from the Nepalese Air Force Service. It has one asphalt designated asphalt asphalt 06/24 which measures 2,424 by 66 feet (739 mÃÆ' â € "20 m). There is a decreasing slope of 1.75% to about 418 feet (127 m) from the runway threshold 06. There are also scheduled flights from Kathmandu and daily flights between Pokhara and Jomsom during the daytime in good weather.
The airport is available all year long but visibility is not enough for flight flight rules (VFR) flight about 15% of the time. Because the wind often prevents airport operations after midday, airlines schedule flights to Jomsom for the morning when wind speeds are low. In the 2013 movie Planes produced by DisneyToon Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures, one stop at Wings Across the World race is Nepal where the Aircraft landed on Mustang. There are also 5 helipads in Muktinath, Thotong Phedi, Ghermu, and Bahundanda.
Tourism
The kingdom was closed to strangers, with rare exceptions, until 1992. Professor David Snellgrove and Italian scholar Giuseppe Tucci and Michel Peissel traveled to the Mustangs in the 1950s. Their stories of a Tibetan kingdom in a state of arid and locked from around the world sparked interest in the Mustang District. The first Westerner in the Mustang was Toni Hagen, a Swiss explorer and geologist, who visited the Kingdom in 1952 during one of his journeys across the Himalayas. France Michel Peissel was considered the first westerner to live in Lo Manthang, during the first official Mustang exploration in 1964.
Lo was out of bounds for foreigners until 1992. Although now open to limited foreign tourists, tourism to the region is still very limited and difficult to access. The Nepalese government has introduced additional fees for anyone crossing Kagbeni, which marks the border of Mustang Hulu. Foreign tourists are required to obtain a special permit, pay a steep fee of US $ 50 per day per person, and be accompanied by a guide to protect local traditions and the environment from outside influences. The Nepal Immigration Department requires foreign visitors to obtain special permits, which cost $ 50 per day per person, and a linkage to protect local traditions from outside influences and to protect their environment. The Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) examines post/info posts scattered along the lines of Jomsom, Muktinath, Kagbeni, and Lo Manthang.
Ancestral Isolation Mustang helps retain an ancient culture that is largely unbroken, and it survives as one of the last bastions of traditional Tibetan life. In the tradition of this ancient forbidden kingdom, they last longer than in Tibet after following the annexation by China. The lower Mustang areas (most of Baragaon, Panchgaon, and Thak Sat Sae along the Annapurna Circuit are one of the most heavily traveled routes in Nepal.The views of the path range from bright rhododendron forests to rocky cliffs and deserts Culture with trekk is a rich combination of Hindu and Tibetan Buddhism. The highest point of this path is Muktinath at 3800 m, (the popular Hindu and Buddhist pilgrimage site for centuries.Gandaki Gorge is part of the popular trekking route from Pokhara to Muktinath. in Annapurna Conservation Area.
Some of the main sights are Lomanthang, Muktinath, Mustangi royal palace, Tibetan art and culture, and trekking at Annapurna Circuit. In addition to trekking routes through the Lo Kingdom (Upper Mustang) and along the Annapurna Circuit (Lower Mustang), the district is also famous for its springs and the village of Muktinath (a popular Hindu and Buddhist pilgrimage site), apples and brandy Marpha made from various fruit (pear, apricot, apple) produced on a farm run by Pasang Sherpa. There are safe water stations in Ghasa, Near Lete in ACAP museums, Kobang, Tukche, Marpha, between Jomsom and Dhapus Peak, Kagbeni, and Muktinath. Thorung, Phedi, Letdar, Manang, Humde, Banana, Chame, Bagarchhap, and Tal have the most famous viewpoints in this district.
Most travelers travel by foot through the same trade routes used in the 15th century. Over a thousand western trekking now visit each year, with over 2000 foreign tourists in 2008. August and October are the peak visiting months. On August 27, 2010, local youth leaders at Mustang threatened to ban tourists starting October 1, 2010 due to the Nepal government's refusal to charge $ 50 per day to the local economy. However, the visit continues uninterrupted beyond that date. Now the upper Mustang is open to strangers on a limited basis, Lopa has increased the number of horses held in hopes of benefiting from tourism. Trekkers in this region and other restricted areas of Nepal are required by government regulations for porters in all food and fuel, thus minimizing environmental impact.
According to the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), a total of 39,017 tourists visit Mustang district by 2016. According to Tulasi Dahal, Head of Jomsom ACAP, 15,478 visitors are from India alone. This shows a considerable increase in the number of tourists over 23,272 visited in the previous year. The highest number of tourists arrived in May with 6,816 visitors and the lowest recorded in January with 365.
Further reading
- The Mustang Traditional Political System, Nepal
- Facts about mustang districts
- Mustang - Central Bureau of Statistics
- Initial & amp; exploration in Mustang
- The last ruler of a remote Buddhist kingdom dies in Nepal
- Sky cave
- New Death Rituals Found in Himalayas - 27 De-fleshed Men
- The ancient mystery of the Mustang Cave
- The castle in the sky, the last forbidden empire of Tibetan culture
- Cultural transformation
- Modernize the Mustang: The Hidden Tibetan Kingdom Meets Its Future
- Mustang: The Kingdom on the Edges
- The road brings jeans, satellite TV to Himalayan Shangri-La
- In the forgotten medieval kingdom of Nepal
- Language
- Loke
- Bote
- Nepali
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments