Deforestation , permit , or clearance is the removal of forest or tree stands where the land is converted to non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forest land to farmland, livestock, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation takes place in tropical rainforests. Approximately 30 percent of the Earth's land surface is covered by forests.
Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are felled for use to build or sell for fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal or wood), while cleared land is used as pasture for cattle and plantations. The removal of trees without adequate reforestation has resulted in habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, and aridity. This has a devastating effect on the biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation has also been used in wars to remove enemies from vital resources and protect its power. A modern example of this is the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during Malaya Emergency and the US military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War. In 2005, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with per capita GDP of at least US $ 4,600. Areas that are deforested usually cause poor soil erosion and are often degraded to vacant land.
Ignoring the prescribed values, negligent forest management, and inadequate environmental legislation are some of the factors that allow for deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation - both naturally occurring and human - is an ongoing problem. Deforestation leads to extinction, changing climatic conditions, desertification, and population migration as observed by current and past conditions through fossil records. More than half of the world's plant and animal species live in tropical forests.
Between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometers (890,000 sqc, mi) of forests worldwide are cut down. As a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometers (2.4 million square kilometers) are left over from the original 16 million square kilometers (6 million hectares) of forests that once covered the Earth. The area of ​​a football field is cleared of the Amazon rainforest every minute, with 136 million hectares (55 million hectares) of rainforest open to livestock as a whole.
Video Deforestation
Cause
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the immediate cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence agriculture is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for 14%, and the removal of firewood reaches 5%.
Experts disagree as to whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Some argue that the poor are more likely to open forests because they have no alternative, others poor have no ability to pay for the materials and labor needed to clear the forest. One study found that the population increased because high fertility rates were the main drivers of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.
Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, unequal distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often seen as the root cause of other deforestation, although there are cases where the impact of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities and ideas) has led to the recovery of local forests.
In 2000, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in local settings can vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can be attributed to "a combination of population pressures and economic, social and economic stagnation technological conditions ".
The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion seem more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no market, and therefore, there is no visible economic value for forest owners or forest-dependent communities for their well-being. From a developing world perspective, the benefits of forests as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves are primarily intended for rich rich countries and there is not enough compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some developed countries, like the United States, cut their forests centuries ago and benefit economically from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny that developing countries have equal opportunities that the poor should not have to bear the cost of conservation when the rich create problems.
Some commentators have noted a shift in drivers of deforestation over the last 30 years. While deforestation is primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects such as transmigration in countries such as Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java and so on, during the late 19th and early half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large farms, and extensive agriculture.
Maps Deforestation
Environmental effects
Atmosphere
Deforestation is ongoing and shapes the climate and geography.
Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the main causes of increasing greenhouse gases. Tropical deforestation is responsible for about 20% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, especially in the tropics, can account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. But recent calculations show that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (except peatland emissions) account for about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 6 to 17%. Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide increases, it produces layers in the atmosphere that trap radiation from the sun. Radiation turns into heat that causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect. Plants emit carbon in the form of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the photosynthesis process, but release some carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively grown can a tree or forest remove carbon, by storing it in the plant tissue. Both decay and wood burning release much of this stored carbon back into the atmosphere. Although wood accumulation is generally required for carbon sequestration, in some forests a symbiotic fungal network that surrounds the roots of trees can store large amounts of carbon, store it underground even if the tree that supplies it dies and decays, or is harvested and burned. Another way carbon can be sequestered by forests is for wood to be harvested and turned into long-lived products, with new young trees replacing them. Deforestation can also cause carbon storage in the soil to be released. Forests can be either sinks or sources depending on environmental circumstances. Adult forests alternate between being clean sinks and clean carbon dioxide sources (see carbon dioxide and carbon cycle).
In deforested areas, land heats up faster and reaches higher temperatures, leading to a local upward movement that increases cloud formation and ultimately produces more rain. However, according to the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, the model used to investigate the long-range response to tropical deforestation shows a wide but light increase in temperature across the tropical atmosphere. Predicted model & lt; 0.2Ã, Â ° C heating for upper air at 700 mb and 500 mb. However, this model does not show significant changes in areas other than Tropics. Although this model does not show significant changes to climate in areas other than Tropics, this is unlikely because the model has a chance of error and the outcome is never completely certain. Deforestation affects windflow, vapor flow and the absorption of solar energy so that it clearly affects the local and global climate.
Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists of providing financial compensation for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation ".
Rainforests are widely believed by laypeople to donate large quantities of oxygen to the world, although it is now accepted by scientists that rain forests donate a little bit of clean oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has little effect on atmospheric oxygen levels. However, burning and burning of forest crops for clearing land releases substantial CO 2 , which contributes to global warming. Scientists also claim that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon every year into the atmosphere.
Hydrology
The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract ground water through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of the forest is removed, the trees no longer touch this water, resulting in a drier climate. Deforestation reduces the water content in soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric humidity. Dry soil causes lower water intake for trees to extract. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, resulting in erosion, flooding and landslides.
Reduced forest cover reduces landscape capacity to intercept, retain and influence rainfall. Instead of trapping the precipitation, which then seeps into the groundwater system, deforested areas become the source of surface runoff, which travels much faster than subsurface flow. Forests return most of the falling water as deposition to the atmosphere by transpiration. Conversely, when an area is deforested, almost all deposition is lost as runoff. That faster surface water transport can be translated into banjir bandang and more localized floods than would happen with forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to the decrease in evapotranspiration, which reduces atmospheric humidity which in some cases affects the wind-deposition rate of deforested areas, since water is not recycled to counter the forest wind direction, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to a study, in northeastern and northwestern deforestation, the average annual rainfall declined by one third between the 1950s and 1980s.
Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly:
- Their canopy cuts off some of the precipitation, which then evaporates back into the atmosphere (canopy interception);
- trash, trunk, and trunk slow down surface runoff;
- Their roots create macropores - large channels - in soils that increase water infiltration;
- they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture through transpiration;
- waste and other organic waste change the soil properties that affect the capacity of the soil to store water.
- the leaves control the humidity of the atmosphere by changing. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up into the leaf and occurs.
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can alter the quantity of water on the surface, in soil or ground water, or in the atmosphere. This in turn alters the rate of erosion and water availability for either the functioning of ecosystems or human services. Deforestation in the lowlands moves cloud formations and rainfall to higher heights.
Forests may have little impact on flooding in case of major rain events, which flood the forest storage capacity if the land is at or near saturation.
Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planet's fresh water.
Deforestation interferes with normal weather patterns that create hotter and drier weather that increases drought, desertification, crop failure, polar ice melt, coastal flooding and major vegetation regime movements.
Land
Because of surface plant litter, undisturbed forest has minimal erosion rates. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, as it reduces the amount of waste cover, which provides protection from surface runoff. The erosion rate is about 2 metric tons per square kilometer. This could be an advantage in the crushed rainforest rainforest. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads (forests) and the use of mechanical equipment.
Deforestation in the Loess Plateau of China many years ago has caused soil erosion; This erosion has caused open valleys. The increase in land in the runoff causes the Yellow River to flood and make it yellow.
Larger erosion is not necessarily a consequence of deforestation, as observed in the southwestern United States. In these areas, the loss of grass due to the presence of trees and other bushes causes more erosion than when trees are removed.
The soil is reinforced by the presence of trees, which secure the soil by binding their roots to the soil layer. Due to deforestation, tree felling causes oblique land to be more susceptible to landslides.
Biodiversity
Deforestation on a human scale results in a decline in biodiversity, and on a global scale is naturally known to cause the extinction of many species. Elimination or destruction of forest cover areas has resulted in degraded environments with reduced biodiversity. Forests support biodiversity, provide habitat for wildlife; In addition, forests encourage drug conservation. With forest biotopes being the source of irreplaceable new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irreparable.
Since tropical rain forests are the most diverse ecosystem on Earth and about 80% of the world's known biodiversity can be found in tropical rainforests, significant forest removal or destruction has resulted in degraded environments with reduced biodiversity. A study in RondÃÆ'Â'nia, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes microbial communities involved in nutrient recycling, clean water production and pollutant disposal.
It is estimated that we lose 137 species of plants, animals and insects every day due to deforestation of rainforests, which is equivalent to 50,000 species per year. Others claim that tropical rainforest logging contributes to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction. The known extinction rate of deforestation rates is very low, about 1 species per year from mammals and birds extrapolating it to about 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of species of animals and plants in Southeast Asia can be destroyed in the 21st century. The prediction is questioned by data from 1995 that shows that in many parts of Southeast Asia many native forests have been converted into monospecific plantations, but potentially endangered species are few and the tree flora remains widespread and stable.
Scientific understanding of the extinction process is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity. Most predictions of forest-related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with the underlying assumption that as forests decline, species diversity will also decline. However, many such models have been proven wrong and habitat loss does not necessarily lead to the loss of species on a large scale. The species-species models are known to over-predict the number of known species threatened in areas where deforestation is actually underway, and highly overpredicting the number of endangered species that are widespread.
A recent study on Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinction so far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will eventually occur within the next 40 years.
Economic impact
Forest destruction and other aspects of nature can halve the living standards of the world's poor and reduce global GDP by 7% by 2050, reports concluded at the biodiversity Convention (CBD) convention in Bonn in 2008. Historically, the use of forest products, including wood and firewood, have played a key role in human society, in proportion to the role of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to use wood to build houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries nearly three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.
The forest products industry is a big part of the economy in developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forests to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, usually lead to long-term loss of income and long-term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia, and many other regions experienced lower incomes due to declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars in losses to the national economy each year.
New procedures for obtaining timber amounts cause more damage to the economy and beat the amount of money spent by people working in logging. According to one study, "in most areas studied, businesses that drive deforestation rarely generate more than US $ 5 for every ton of carbon they release and often return much less than US $ 1." Prices in the European market for offsets associated with a ton of carbon reduction are 23 euros (about US $ 35).
Rapid economic growth also affects deforestation. Much of the pressure will come from developing countries in the world, which have the fastest growing population and the fastest growing (industrial) economic growth. In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6%, compared with a growth rate of 2% for developed countries. "As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and city expansions will occur.Connecting all new expansions will be a path, a very important part of our daily life. On rural roads encourage economic development but also facilitate deforestation. % deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most of the Amazon.
The EU is one of the largest importers of products made from illegal deforestation.
Forest transition theory
Changes in forest areas may follow the patterns suggested by forest transition theory (FT), which in the early stages of its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries).
Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover - high deforestation rate), and reduced forest cover (LFHD, low forest cover - high deforestation rate), before the rate of deforestation slows (LFLD, low forest cover - low deforestation rate), after forest cover stabilized and finally began to recover. FT is not "natural law", and patterns are influenced by the national context (eg, human population density, developmental stage, economic structure), global economic power, and government policy. A country can achieve very low levels of forest cover before it is stable, or perhaps through good policies to "bridge" forest transitions.
The FT illustrates the broad trend, and the extrapolation of the historical rate therefore tends to underestimate the future BAU deforestation for districts in the early stages of transition (HFLD), while tending to overstate BAU deforestation for the countries at a later stage (LFHD and LFLD).
Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be in the early stages of FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the use of natural resources, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also matches two major scenarios in FT:
(i) the scarcity of forests, where forest scarcity triggers strength (eg, higher prices of forest products) leading to the stabilization of forest cover; and
(ii) economic development paths, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of border agriculture and slow deforestation.
History of causes
Prehistoric
The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse is an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change destroys tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many species of plants and animals. The change is sudden, in particular, now the climate becomes cooler and drier, conditions unfavorable for the growth of rain forests and much of the biodiversity therein. The fragmented rain forests form the 'island' shrinking further and further apart. Populations like the Lissamphibia sub class were destroyed, while Reptiles survived the collapse. The surviving organism better adapts to the drier environments left behind and functions as successive inheritance after collapse.
Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's surface; now they cover only 6% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforest can be consumed in less than 40 years. Small-scale deforestation is carried out by some communities for tens of thousands of years before the beginning of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It may be used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favorable to game animals. With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the primary tool for clearing land for crops. In Europe there was little strong evidence before 7000 BC. The Mesolithic Forager uses fire to create openings for red deer and wild pigs. In the UK, shade-resistant species such as oak and ash trees are replaced in pollen records by hazels, thorns, grasses and nettles. Forest removal causes a decrease in transpiration, resulting in the formation of a highland peat swamp. The decline in elm pollen across Europe between 8400-8300 BC and 7200-7000 BC, beginning in southern Europe and gradually moving northward into the UK, probably represents land clearing by fire at the beginning of Neolithic agriculture.
The Neolithic Period saw extensive deforestation for agricultural land. The stone axis is made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a variety of hard rocks from all over the UK and North America as well. They include the Langdale ax industry listed in the English Lake District, a mine developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and many other locations. Rough-outs are made locally near the mine, and some are polished locally to provide a great finish. This step not only increases the mechanical strength of the ax, but also facilitates the penetration of wood. Flint is still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe.
Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the Palace environment of Knossos suffered severe deforestation in the Bronze Age.
Pre-industry history
Throughout prehistory, humans are hunter gatherers hunting in the forest. In most areas, such as the Amazon, the tropics, Central America and the Caribbean, only after the shortage of timber and other forest products takes place is the policy applied to ensure that forest resources are used sustainably.
Three regional studies of historical erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece have found that, where sufficient evidence exists, the main phase of erosion follows the introduction of agriculture in various regions of Greece around 500-1000 years, ranging from Neolithic to early Bronze Age. A thousand years after the middle of the first millennium BC saw a serious and intermittent wave of soil erosion in many places. Termination of historic ports along the southern coast of Asia Minor (eg Clarus, and examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where ports must be abandoned due to mud deposits held by Meander) and coastal Syria during the centuries, last century BC.
Easter Island has suffered from severe soil erosion in recent centuries, exacerbated by agriculture and deforestation. Jared Diamond provides a broad view into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islands in his book Collapse . The loss of trees on the island seems to coincide with the decline of civilization around the 17th and 18th centuries. He attributes the collapse with deforestation and the over-exploitation of all resources.
The famous stoppage of the port for Bruges, which transfers port trade to Antwerp, also follows a period of increasing residential growth (and apparently deforestation) in the upper river basin. In the early Middle Ages Riez in upper Provence, alluvial mud from two small rivers raised the river bed and spread the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved the new construction to the higher ground; simultaneously the headwater valleys above Riez are opened for pasture.
The common development trap is that cities are often built in forested areas, which will provide timber for some industries (eg, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; Local timber supplies become difficult to get close enough to remain competitive, leading to the neglect of the city, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Minor Asia. Because the needs of fuel, mining and metallurgy often lead to deforestation and municipal neglect.
With the vast majority of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, major pressures in most areas continue to clear land for agriculture and livestock. Fairly wild greens are usually left standing (and some are used, for example, to collect firewood, wood and fruit, or to graze pigs) to keep the wildlife alive. The elite (nobles and higher priests) privilege protection and their hunting game often protects the significant forest.
The main parts in the distribution (and thus the more durable growth) of the population are played by monastic 'pioneers' (mainly by the Benedictine and Commercial Order) and some farmers recruit feudal to settle (and become taxpayers) by offering relatively good conditions legal and fiscal. Even when speculators are trying to push cities, the settlers need agricultural belts around or sometimes inside the walls of defense. As populations rapidly decline by causes such as Black Death or destructive warfare (eg, Mongol Genghis Khan hordes in eastern and central Europe, the Thirty Years' War in Germany), this can lead to abandoned settlements. The soil is reclaimed by nature, but secondary forests usually do not have genuine biodiversity.
From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation occurred in Western Europe as a result of the widespread human population. The large wooden sailboat building by European sea (beach) owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonization, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas spends a lot of forest resources. Piracy also contributes to excessive logging, such as in Spain. This led to the weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus's discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activity (plundering, mining, livestock, plantation, commerce, etc.)
In the Changes in the Land (1983), William Cronon analyzed and documented the 17th century British colonist's report on seasonal flooding increases in New England during the period when new settlers initially cleared forests for agriculture. They believe that floods are linked to widespread forest clearance upstream.
The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in early modern Europe is a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive charcoal production has reached an impressive level. British Stuart is so deforested that it relies on Baltic trade for wooden ships, and sees the untapped New England forests to meet those needs. Each Nelson Royal Navy warship in Trafalgar (1805) requires 6,000 adults for its construction. In France, Colbert planted an oak forest to supply the French navy in the future. When oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the columns were no longer needed as shipping had changed.
Summary Norman F. Cantor on the effects of deforestation in the late Middle Ages is as good as the Early Modern Europe:
The Europeans lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the early medieval. After 1250 they became highly skilled in deforestation so that in 1500 they ran out of wood for heating and cooking. They are faced with a decline in nutrients due to the abolition of the abundant supply of wild games that have inhabited the now-vanished forests, which during the middle ages have provided high-carnivorous protein foods. In 1500 Europe was on the edge of the fuel and nutrient disasters that were stored in the sixteenth century only by the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize.
Industrial era
In the 19th century, the introduction of steamships in the United States was the cause of deforestation in a number of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased flooding and more severe one environmental results. Steam crews cut wood every day from the riverbank to refuel the steam engine. Between St. Louis and the encounter with the Ohio River in the south, Mississippi became wider and shallower, and changed the channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by using drag pullers often result in the crew clearing large trees 100 to 200 feet (61 m) back from the bank. Some French colonial cities in the State of Illinois, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St.. Philippe, Illinois, was flooded and abandoned at the end of the 19th century, with the loss of their archaeological cultural record.
Large-scale liberation from forests to create farmland can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the transition of Middle-meadow forests and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th century deforestation occurring in many developing countries.
Deforestation rate
Global deforestation increased sharply around 1852. It is estimated that about half of the mature tropical forest on Earth - between 7.5 million to 8 million km 2 (2.9 million to 3 million sq mi) of the original 15 million up to 16 million km 2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet - has now been destroyed. Some scientists have estimated that unless significant steps (such as finding and protecting long-standing undisturbed forest) are taken worldwide, by 2030 there will be only 10% remaining, with another 10% in degraded conditions. 80% will disappear, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species. Some cartographers have tried to illustrate the magnitude of deforestation by the state using a cartogram.
Estimates vary widely as is the extent of tropical deforestation. Over a 50-year period, the percentage of land cover by tropical rainforests decreased by 50%. Where total land cover by tropical rainforest decreased from 14% to 6%. This large contribution to loss can be identified between 1960 and 1990, when 20% of all tropical rainforests are destroyed. At this level, the extinction of this kind of forest is projected to occur in the middle of the 21st century.
A 2002 satellite image analysis showed that the rate of deforestation in humid tropics (about 5.8 million hectares per year) is approximately 23% lower than the most frequently quoted rate. In contrast, a newer satellite image analysis reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists had predicted.
Some argue that deforestation trends may follow the Kuznets curve, which if true fails to eliminate the risk of losing non-recoverable forest values ​​(eg, species extinction).
The 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that although the total forest area of ​​the Earth continues to decline by about 13 million hectares per year, global deforestation rates have recently slowed. The 2016 report by FAO reports from 2010 to 2015 there is a decline in world forest area of ​​3.3 million ha per year. During this five-year period, the largest loss of forest occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. The decline in per capita forest area is also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but occurs in every climatic region (except in temperate climates) as the population increases.
Others claim that the rainforest is being destroyed at an accelerating pace. The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "The UN figures are based on the definition of forests as an area with as little as 10% of the actual tree cover, which will therefore include areas that are really like ecosystems like savannas and degraded forests." Criticism other than FAO data indicates that they do not distinguish between forest types, and that they are largely based on reporting from each country's forest department, which does not take into account unofficial activities such as illegal logging.
Despite this uncertainty, there is agreement that the destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Up to 90% of West African coastal rain forests have disappeared since 1900. In South Asia, about 88% of the rainforest has disappeared. Much of the rest of the world's rainforests are in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers about 4 million square kilometers. The region with the highest tropical deforestation rates between 2000 and 2005 was Central America - which lost 1.3% of its forests annually - and tropical Asia. In Central America, two thirds of lowland tropical forest has turned into grasslands since 1950 and 40% of all rainforests have disappeared in the last 40 years. Brazil has lost 90-95% of Atlá  ¢ ttica Eye Forest. Paraguay lost its semi-humid, semi-humid forest in the country's western region with a 15,000-hectare rate in a randomly observed 2-month period in 2010, Paraguay's parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would stop natural forest clearance altogether.
Madagascar has lost 90% of its eastern rainforest. In 2007, less than 50% of Haiti's forest remained. Mexico, India, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and Ivory Coast have lost much of their rainforest. Some countries, especially Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency. The World Wildlife Fund ecoregion project categorizes habitats worldwide, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in Canada's rich forests such as Canadian Mid-Continental forest in grassland province half of forest cover has been lost or changed.
Territory
The rate of deforestation varies worldwide.
In 2011, Conservation International listed the 10 most endangered forests, characterized by the loss of 90% or more of their native habitat, and each store at least 1500 species of endemic plants (species not found elsewhere in the world).
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Control
Reduce emissions
Major international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank have begun to develop programs aimed at halting deforestation. The term Emission Reduced blanket from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes such programs, which use direct monetary incentives or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or reverse deforestation. Funding has become a problem, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of the Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an agreement was reached with collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources , including forestry and investment through international agencies, which will approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010-2012. Significant work is underway on tools to be used in monitoring developing country compliance with their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring use satellite imagery and other data sources, including the FORMA Center for Forest Assistance (Global Forests for Action) initiative and the Earth Observer Forest Carbon Monitoring Portal. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring is also emphasized in COP-15. Avoided environmental organizations Deforestation Partners lead campaigns for REDD development through funding from the US government. In 2014, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and partners launch Open Foris - an open source software suite that helps countries collect, produce and disseminate information on the status of forest resources. Tools support the inventory life cycle, from needs assessment, design, planning, field data collection and management, forecast analysis, and dissemination. Remote sensing image processing tools included, as well as tools for international reporting to Reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and MRV (Measurement, Reporting and Verification) and FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment.
In evaluating the implications of overall emissions reductions, the countries most concerned about are those categorized as High Forest Coverage with High Levels of Deforestation (HFHD) and Low Forest Cover with High Level of Deforestation (LFHD). Afghanistan, Benin, Botswana, Burma, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mongolia, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger , Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, the Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe are listed as having Low Forest Cover with High Level Deforestation (LFHD). Brazil, Cambodia, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Equatorial Guinea, Malaysia, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Venezuela, Zambia are listed as High Forest Cover with High Level of Deforestation (HFHD).
Payments to preserve forests
In Bolivia, deforestation in upper river basins has caused environmental problems, including soil erosion and degradation of water quality. An innovative project to try and improve the situation involves upstream landowners paid by downstream water users to conserve forests. Landowners receive US $ 20 to conserve trees, avoid polluting livestock practices, and increase biodiversity and forest carbon in their lands. They also received US $ 30, which purchased bee hives, to compensate for the conservation of two hectares of forest that support water for five years. The income of honey per hectare of forest is US $ 5 per year, so in five years, the landlord has sold US $ 50 honey. The project is being undertaken by FundaciÃÆ'³n Natura Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support from Climate & amp; Development of Knowledge Network.
Land rights
Transferring land rights from the public domain to indigenous peoples is considered a cost-effective strategy for conserving forests. This includes the protection of such rights contained in existing legislation, such as the Indian Forest Rights Act. The transfer of such rights in China, perhaps the greatest land reform in modern times, has been debated to increase forest cover. In Brazil, forest areas granted ownership to indigenous groups even have lower clearance rates than national parks.
Agriculture
New methods are being developed for more intensive farming, such as high-yield hybrid plants, greenhouses, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. These methods often depend on the chemical input to maintain the required results. In cyclic agriculture, cattle are herded on resting and rejuvenating farmlands. Cyclic agriculture actually increases soil fertility. Intensive farming can also reduce soil nutrients by consuming at the level of mineral trace acceleration necessary for plant growth. However, the most promising approach is the concept of food forests in permaculture, consisting of carefully designed agroforestal systems to mimic natural forest, with emphasis on plant and animal species of interest for food, wood and other uses. The system has a low dependence on fossil fuels and agro-chemicals, is highly self-sustaining, highly productive, and with a strong positive impact on soil and water quality, and biodiversity.
Monitoring deforestation
There are several precise and reliable methods to reduce and monitor deforestation. One method is "visual interpretation of aerial photographs or satellite imagery that are labor-intensive but do not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computing resources". Other methods include hot-spot analysis (ie, fast change location) using expert opinions or rough resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images. Deforestation is usually assessed by measuring the number of deforested areas measured at this time. From an environmental point of view, measuring damage and possible consequences is a more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forest land protection and the development of alternative land uses to avoid further deforestation. Deforestation rates and deforested forest area have been widely used to monitor deforestation in many areas, including monitoring Amazon deforestation by INPE. A global satellite view is available.
Forest management
Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been tried for centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause considerable environmental damage in some cases causing communities to collapse. In Tonga, the most important rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from forest conversion to agricultural land and the long-term problems that the forests would inflict, while during the 17th and 18th centuries in Tokugawa, Japan, the shoguns developed a system which is very sophisticated. long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation in previous centuries through replacing wood with other products and more efficient land use that have been planted for centuries. In 16th century Germany, landowners also developed silviculture to address deforestation issues. However, this policy tends to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no drought and very young soils (through volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older soils and less fertile soils grows too slowly for silviculture to become an economy, while in areas with strong droughts there is always the risk of forest fires destroying trees before they mature.
In areas where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" will prevent rapid deforestation and land degradation. Biochar is made, given back to the ground, not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but also a very useful amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass, it creates terra preta creations, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself.
Ongoing practice
Certifications, such as those provided by global certification systems such as the Forest Certification Program and Forest Stewardship Council, contribute to address deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "The main conditions for the adoption of sustainable forest management are the demand for sustainably produced products and the willingness of consumers to pay for higher costs is required.Certification is a shift from regulatory approaches to marketing incentives for promoting sustainable forest management By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation. "Rainforest Rescue argues that organizational standards such as the FSC are too closely linked to the interests of the timber industry and therefore do not guarantee the management forests that are environmentally and socially responsible. In fact, monitoring systems are inadequate and cases of fraud have been documented worldwide.
Some countries have taken steps to help increase the number of trees on Earth. In 1981, China created the National Forest Tree Planting Day and forest cover now reached 16.55% of mainland China, as it was only 12% two decades ago.
Using bamboo fuels rather than wood produces cleaner burning, and since bamboo matures much faster than wood, deforestation is reduced because supplies can be recharged faster.
Reforestation
In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation increase the area of ​​forested land. The amount of forest land has increased in 22 of the 50 forest countries in the world. Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. The tropical forests of El Salvador expanded by more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on this trend, a research project that global forests will increase by 10% - an area of ​​Indian size - in 2050.
In the People's Republic of China, where large-scale forest destruction has occurred, the government in the past required every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 to plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work. in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1 billion trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. This is no longer necessary today, but March 12 of every year in China is the Growing Vacations. Also, has introduced the Green Wall of China project, which aims to stop the expansion of the Gobi desert through tree planting. However, since large percentages of trees die after planting (up to 75%), the project is not very successful. There has been an increase of 47 million hectares in forested areas in China since the 1970s. The total number of trees totaling about 35 billion and 4.55% of mainland China is increasing in forest cover. Forest cover 12% two decades ago and now 16.55%.
An ambitious proposal for China is the proposed Aerial and Erosion Control System issued by Aerial and the proposed Saharan Forest Project combined with the Sea Water House.
In Western countries, increasing consumer demand for sustainably harvested and sustainably harvested timber products causes forest landowners and the forest industry to be increasingly responsible for forest management and logging practices.
Rain Forest Rescue Program The Rainy Day Foundation is a charity that helps prevent deforestation. Charities use donations of money to buy and conserve rain forest land before timber companies can afford it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. It also locks the way of life of primitive tribes living in forest land. Organizations such as Community Forestry International, Cool Earth, The Nature Conservancy, the World Wide Fund for Nature, Conservation International, the African Conservation Foundation, and Greenpeace are also focusing on conserving forest habitats. Greenpeace specifically has also mapped the intact forests and published this information on the internet. The World Resources Institute has in turn created a simpler thematic map showing the number of forests that existed before the human age (8000 years ago) and the current forest level (reduced). These maps indicate the amount of afforestation needed to repair the damage caused by humans.
Plantation
To obtain world demand for timber, it is recommended that high-yield forest plantations be suitable by forest authors, Botkins and Sedjo. Plantations producing 10 cubic meters per hectare per year will supply enough wood to trade 5% of the world's forest land. In contrast, natural forests produce about 1-2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5-10 times more forest land is needed to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested forest mosaics with high yield forest areas interspersed with conservation land.
Globally, plantations increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015. Plantation forests reached 280 million ha by 2015, an increase of around 40 million ha in the last ten years. Globally, planted forests comprise about 18% of exotic species or species introduced while the rest are native species of the country where they are planted. In South America, Oceania, and East and South Africa, planted forests are dominated by introduced species: 88%, 75% and 65%, respectively. In North America, Western and Central Asia, and Europe the proportion of species introduced in plantations is much lower at 1%, 3% and 8% of the total planted area, respectively.
In the country of Senegal, on the west coast of Africa, a youth-led movement has helped to plant more than 6 million mangrove trees. The trees will protect local villages from hurricane damage and will provide habitat for local wildlife. The project started in 2008, and already the Senegalese government has been asked to create rules and regulations that will protect the new mangroves.
Military context
While demands for agricultural and urban use for human populations lead to the dominance of deforestation, military causes can also be disruptive. One example of intentional deforestation was played in the US occupation zone in Germany after World War II ended in 1945. Before the start of the Cold War, defeated Germany was still considered a potential future threat rather than a potential ally candidate. To overcome this threat, the victorious Allies made efforts to reduce the potential of the German industry, where forests were considered elements. Sources in the US government recognize that the aim of this is that "the total destruction of the potential for German forest war". As a consequence of a clear-cutting practice, deforestation is generated that can be "replaced only by long-term forestry development for perhaps a century".
Operations in the war can also lead to deforestation. For example, in the Battle of Okinawa in 1945, bombing and other combat operations reduced the fertile tropical landscape into "mud, lead, decay, and maggot fields".
Deforestation can also result from deliberate tactics of military power. Clearing the forest became a successful conquest element of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus in the mid-19th century. The British (during Malaya Emergency) and the United States (in Korean War and Vietnam War) use defoliant (like Agent Orange or others).
Context of public health
Deforestation removes a large number of plant and animal species which also often lead to increased disease. The loss of native species allows new species to dominate. Often the destruction of predatory species can lead to an increase in the population of rodents that can carry outbreaks. In addition, erosion can produce stagnant stagnant water that is a perfect breeding ground for mosquitoes, famous malaria vectors, yellow fever, nipah virus, and more. Deforestation can also create a way for non-native species to evolve like certain types of snails, which has been correlated with an increase in cases of schistosomiasis.
Deforestation takes place around the world and has been accompanied by an increase in the outbreak of disease. In Malaysia, thousands of hectares of forest have been cleared for pig farms. This has resulted in increased zoonoses in the Nipah virus. In Kenya, deforestation has led to an increase in cases of malaria that is now a major cause of state morbidity and mortality. A 2017 study at the American Economic Review found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria.
Another pathway in which deforestation affects the disease is the relocation and spread of carriers of carrier diseases. The pathway of the emergence of this disease can be called "range extension", where the host range (and thus the pathogen range) extends to a new geographic area. Through deforestation, residents and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats. Determination of reservoir species is a pathogen that has the ability to locate new hosts in previously unexposed areas. When these pathogens and species come into close contact with humans, they are infected either directly or indirectly.
A disastrous example of extending the outbreak was the Nipah virus outbreak in 1998 in Malaysia. For several years, deforestation, drought, and subsequent fires caused dramatic geographic shifts and fruit bats density, reservoirs for the Nipah virus. Deforestation reduces the fruit trees that are available in bat habitats, and they penetrate the surrounding gardens which are also the location of a large number of pig pens. Bats, through the proximity of spreading Nipah to pigs. While the virus infects pigs, mortality is much lower than among humans, making pigs a lethal host that causes the spread of the virus to humans. This resulted in 265 reported cases of encephalitis, of which 105 resulted in death. This example provides an important lesson for the impact of deforestation on human health.
Other examples of the extent of coverage due to deforestation and the impact of other anthropogenic habitats include the Capybara rodents in Paraguay. These rodents are the hosts of a number of zoonotic diseases and, while there has not been a human-transmitted outbreak because of the movement of these rodents to new areas, it offers an example of how habitat destruction through deforestation and subsequent species movement is occurring on a regular basis.
The theory that is now well developed is that the spread of HIV is at least partly due to deforestation. The increasing population creates food demand and with deforestation opens new areas in the forests of hunters harvesting lots of wild primate meat, believed to be the origin of HIV.
See also
References
- Notes
- General reference
- Ethiopian reference to deforestation
External links
- Global map of deforestation based on Landsat data
- JICA-JAXA Forest Early Warning System in the Tropics: JJ-FAST (MINING FOREST INNOVATION) - JICA-JAXA
- Old growth forest zone in the remaining world's forests
- EIA forest report: Investigation against illegal logging.
- EIA in USA Reports and info.
- Cocaine destroys 4 million m2 of rainforest per gram of The Guardian
- "Avoided Deforestation" Plan Gain Support - Worldwatch Institute
- OneWorld Tropical Forest Guides
- Some Background Info for Deforestation and REDD
- General info about deforestation effect
- Deforestation and Climate Change
- In media
- March 14, 2007, Independent Online : Forest destruction in developing countries 'out of control'
- Pappas, S. (November 14, 2013). "Vanishing Forests: Detail New Map of Global Deforestation". LiveScience.com . TechMediaNetwork . Retrieved November 16 2013 .
- August 31, 2017, Independent Online : Amazon's new species are discovered every two days while the rainforest is destroyed by 'non-stop deforestation'
- Online movies
- Watch the National Film Board of Canada documentary Battle for the Trees & amp; Crisis forests
- Video about Illegal Deforestation In Paraguay
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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