The chickpea or chick pea ( Cicer arietinum ) is a legume from the family of Fabaceae, subfamily of Faboideae. The different types are known as gram or Bengal gram , garbanzo or garbanzo bean , or Egyptian nuts . The seeds are high in protein. This is one of the earliest planted legumes: the remains of 7,500 years have been found in the Middle East. By 2016, India produces 64% of the world's total beans.
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Etimologi
The name "chickpea" retrieves through French chiche to cicer , Latin for" chickpea "(from which Roman Cicero is taken). The Oxford English Dictionary list of 1548 quotes that read, " Cicer can be named in English Cich, or ciche pease, after French." This diction cites "Chick-pea" in the mid-18th century; the original word in English taken directly from the French is chich , was found in print in English in 1388. In neo-latin (modern Italian) it is known as "cece" (CHAY -chay) in single, and "ceci" (CHAY-chee) in the plural.
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History
Domestic peanuts have been found at the aceramic level of Jericho (PPNB) along with ÃÆ'â € ayÃÆ'¶nÃÆ'¼ in Turkey and in Neolithic pottery in Hacilar, Turkey. They are found in the late Neolithic (about 3500 BC) in Thessaly, Kastanas, Lerna and Dimini, Greece. In southern France, the Mesolithic layer in the cave in L'Abeurador, Aude, has produced wild poisonous beans in 6790 Â ± 90 BC.
Chickpeas is mentioned in the Charlemagne Capitulare de villis (about 800 AD) as cicer italicum , which grows in every demesne of the empire. Albertus Magnus mentions the red, white, and black varieties. Nicholas Culpeper notes "chick-pease or cicers" are less "windy" than peas and more nutritious. Ancient people also associate beans with Venus as they are said to offer medical uses such as improving sperm and milk, provoking menstruation and urine, and helping to treat kidney stones. "White cicers" are considered very powerful and helpful.
In 1793, grilled beans were recorded by a German writer as a coffee substitute in Europe. In the First World War, they grew for use in some areas of Germany. They are sometimes brewed instead of coffee.
Genome sequencing
Sequencing chickpea genome has been completed for 90 chickpea genotypes, including some wild species. A collaboration of 20 research organizations, led by the International Crops Research Institute for Tropical Semi-Arid (ICRISAT) identified more than 28,000 genes and several million genetic markers. Scientists hope this work will lead to the development of superior cultivars, among which 77 have been released to farmers around the world.
The new research will benefit millions of farmers in developing countries who grow long beans as a much-needed source of income, and their ability to add nitrogen to the soil in which it grows. Production is growing rapidly throughout the developing world, especially in West Asia, where it has increased fourfold over the last 30 years. India is by far the world's largest producer, but also the largest importer.
Geographic cultivation
Plants grow up to 20-50 cm (8-20 inches) and have small, hairy leaves on both sides of the stem. Chickpeas is a type of pulse, with one seed containing two or three peas. It has white flowers with blue, purple, or pink veins.
Several bean varieties are cultivated throughout the world. Desi chana is very similar to the two seeds found on archaeological sites and the ancestors of wild plants of the domesticated Cicer reticulatum, which grows only in southeast Turkey, where beans are believed to originate. Desi chana has small, darker seeds and coarse coat. They mostly grow in Pakistan, India and other parts of South Asia, as well as in Ethiopia, Mexico, and Iran. Desi means 'country' or 'local' in Hindustan; Other names include kana chana ("black beans" in Hindi and Urdu) or chholaa boot . Desi chana can be black, green or speckled. These varieties are skinned and split to make chana dal .
Garbanzo beans or chloro kabana are lighter, bigger, and with finer layers, and are mainly grown in the Mediterranean, Southern Europe, North Africa, South America, and South Asia. This name means "from Kabul" in Hindi and Urdu, and this variation is thought to have come from Kabul, Afghanistan when it was introduced to India in the 18th century. Unusual black beans, ceci neri , only grow in Apulia, in southern Italy. Its size is almost the same as garbanzo beans, both larger and darker than the 'desi' varieties.
Usage
Human consumption
Chickpeas are usually boiled quickly for 10 minutes and then boiled for longer periods. Dried beans require a long cooking time (1-2 hours) but will easily fall off when cooked longer. If soaked for 12-24 hours before use, cooking time can be shortened by about 30 minutes. Chickpeas can also be cooked pressure or sated vide cooked at 90 ° C, (194 ° F).
Adult beans can be cooked and eaten cold in a salad, cooked in a stew, ground into flour, milled and shaped with a ball and fried as falafel, made into dough and baked to make farinata i> or cecina , or fried to create a panel . Chickpea flour is known as gram flour or besan in South Asia and is often used in South Asian cooking.
Chickpeas are very popular in the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal, they are one of the main ingredients in rancho, eaten with pasta and meat, including Portuguese sausage, or with rice. They are used in other hot dishes with bacalhau and in the soup. In Spain, they are used cold in tapas and salads, as well as in cocido madrileÃÆ' Â ± o . In Italy, beans are eaten with pasta or soup. In southern Italy, peanut flour is made into dough for the panel, a crepe. In Egypt, beans are used as toppings for kushari .
? ummu? is the Arabic word for beans, which is often cooked and ground into pasta and mixed with ? a ?? na (sesame seed paste), a mixture called ? ummu? bi? a ?? na . Chickpeas are roasted, seasoned, and eaten as a snack, such as leblebi . At the end of the 20th century, hummus has become commonplace in American cuisine. In 2010, 5% of Americans consume hummus on a regular basis, and it is present in 17% of American households.
Some varieties of beans can appear and be eaten like popcorn.
Chickpeas and Bengal grams are used to make curries and are one of the most popular vegetarian foods in South Asia and in diaspora communities from many other countries served with bread or rice. Popular dishes in Indian cuisine are made with peanut flour, such as Mirchi Bada and mirapakaya bajji. In India, as well as in the Levant, the young beans are often picked from pods and eaten raw snacks and leaves eaten as leaf vegetables in salads.
Chickpea flour is used to make the first known "Burmese Tofu" among the Shan people in Burma. In South Asian cuisine, Chickpea flour (Besan) is used as a dough to coat the vegetables before being fried to make Pakoras. This flour is also used as a dough to coat vegetables and meat before being fried, or fried alone as a panel, a nuts fryer from Sicily. Chickpea flour is used to make Mediterranean flat bread socca and is called panisse in Provence, southern France. It is made from cooked arabian flour, poured into a saucer, left to dry, cut into pieces, and fried with olive oil, often eaten during Lent. In Tuscany long bean flour (farina di ceci) is used to make oven baked pancakes: flour mixed with water, oil and salt. Chickpea flour known as Kadlehittu in Kannada is used to make Mysterian sweet dishes.
In the Philippines, beans preserved in syrup are eaten as sweet and in desserts such as halo . Jews from Ashkenazi countries traditionally serve the whole bean at the celebration of the Shalom Zachar for the baby boy.
Guasanas is a Mexican bean recipe in which nuts are cooked in water and salt.
Fluids derived from peanuts ( aquafaba ) can be used instead of egg whites to make meringue.
Animal feed
Chickpeas serve as a source of energy and protein as animal feed.
Raw beans have a lower trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor content than legumes, regular peanuts, and soybeans. This leads to higher nutritional value and fewer digestive problems in nonruminants. The nonruminant diet can be solved with 200 g/kg of raw beans to promote egg production and the growth of birds and pigs. A higher amount can be used when the beans are treated with heat.
Experiments have shown that ruminants grow well and produce the same amount and quality of milk when soybeans or cereal foods are replaced with beans. Pigs show the same performance, but growing pigs experience the negative effects of raw bean feed; extruded chickpeas can improve performance even in pig growth. In experimental poultry diet with untreated chickpeas, only young broiler (early period) showed worse performance. Fish are done just as well when their soy or cereal diet is replaced by extruded chickpeas. Chickpea seeds have also been used in rabbit diets.
Secondary components of the legumes - such as lecithin, polyphenols, oligosaccharides, and amylases, proteases, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors - can lead to lower nutrient availability, resulting in negative effects in animal growth and health (especially in nonruminants). Ruminants generally have fewer problems to digest nuts with secondary components, because they can disable them in rumen liquor. Their food can be added with 300 g/kg or more of raw beans. However, protein digestibility and energy availability can be improved through treatment, such as germination, dehulling, and heat. Extrusion is an excellent heat technique for destroying secondary components in nuts, because the protein is irreversible. Overprocessing can decrease nutritional value; extrusion leads to loss of minerals and vitamins, while dry heating does not change its chemical composition.
Nutrition
Chickpeas are nutrient-dense foods, providing rich content (20% or higher of Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, folate, and certain dietary minerals such as iron and phosphorus. Thiamin content, vitamin B 6 , magnesium, and zinc are moderate, giving 10-16% of DV. Chickpeas has a Protein Digestibility Corrated Amino Acid Score of about 0.76, which is higher than many legumes and other cereals.
Compared with reference levels set by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization, the proteins in mature and germinated beans are rich in essential amino acids such as lysine, isoleucine, tryptophan, and total aromatic amino acids.
A serving of 100 g cooked cooked beans provides 164 kilocalories (690 kJ). Cooked beans are 60% water, 27% carbohydrates, 9% protein and 3% fat (tables). 75% of lipid content is an unsaturated fatty acid whose linoleic acid comprises 43% of total fat.
Cooking effect
Cooking treatments do not cause differences in total protein and carbohydrate content. Soaking and cooking dry beans may induce a protein-protein complex modification chemistry, leading to an increase in crude fiber content. Thus, cooking can improve the quality of protein by disabling or destroying unstable antinutritional factors. Cooking also increases protein digestibility, essential amino acid index, and protein efficiency ratios. Although cooking lowers the concentration of amino acids such as tryptophan, lysine, total aromatics, and sulfur-containing amino acids, the content is still higher than that suggested by FAO/WHO references. Diffusion of reducing sugars, raffinose, sucrose and others into boiling water reduces or completely eliminates these components. Cooking also significantly reduces the fat and mineral content. Vitamin B riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, and pyridoxine dissolve into cooking water at different levels.
Germination
Germination of beans improves protein digestion, albeit at a lower level than cooking. Germination lowers the protein to a simple peptide, increasing the crude protein, nonprotein nitrogen, and crude fiber content. Germination lowers lysine, tryptophan, sulfur and total aromatic amino acids, but most of the contents are still higher than those suggested by the FAO/WHO reference pattern.
Oligosaccharides, such as stachyose and raffinose, are reduced in higher amounts during germination than during cooking. Minerals and B vitamins are maintained more effectively during germination compared to cooking. Phytic acid is significantly reduced, but trypsin, tannin, and saponin reduction inhibitors are less effective than cooking.
Autoclave, cook with microwave, boil
The protein digestibility is enhanced by all cooking treatments. Essential amino acids slightly increase with boiling and microwave cooking when compared with autoclaving and germination. Overall, cooking with microwaves leads to significantly lower nutrient loss compared to autoclaving and boiling.
Finally, all treatments lead to better protein digestion, protein efficiency ratios, and essential amino acid index. Cooking with a microwave seems to be an effective method for preparing beans due to increased nutritional value and lower cooking times.
Leaves
In some parts of the world, young bean leaves are consumed as cooked green vegetables. Especially in a malnourished population, it can supplement essential dietary nutrients, because the area in which beans are consumed is sometimes found to have a population less micronutrient. Chickpea leaves have a much higher mineral content than cabbage and spinach. In natural settings, environmental factors and the availability of nutrients can affect mineral concentrations. However, consumption of bean leaves is recommended for areas where Arab beans are produced as food for humans.
Preliminary research shows that consumption of beans can lower blood cholesterol.
Production
By 2016, the world's production of Arab nuts is 12.1 million tons, led by India alone with 64% of the global total (table).
Cultivation of heat and micronutrients
Agricultural produce for beans is often based on genetic and phenotypic variability that has recently been affected by artificial selection. The absorption of micronutrients such as inorganic phosphorus or nitrogen is essential for the development of the arietinum cicer , commonly known as perennial beans. Micronutrient heat and coupling cultivation are two relatively unknown methods used to improve yield and size of beans. Recent research has shown that combined heat treatments along with two vital micronutrients, phosphorus and nitrogen, are the most important components to improve overall results of Cicer arietinum .
Bean beans are an important source of nutrients in animal feed because they are a source of energy and high protein for livestock. Unlike other food crops, perennial beans show an extraordinary capacity to change their nutritional content in response to heat cultivation. Treating green beans with a constant heat source increases its protein content almost threefold. As a result, the impact of heat cultivation not only affects the protein content of the beans themselves, but the ecosystems it supports as well. Increasing the height and size of groundnut plants involves the use of micronutrient fertilization with various doses of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen.
Levels of phosphorus flavored by long bean seeds during its life cycle have a positive correlation relative to plant height at full maturity. Increase inorganic phosphorus levels at all doses gradually increase the height of long bean plants. Thus, seasonal changes in the phosphorus soil content and periods of drought known as the original characteristic of the dry Middle East region where the most commonly cultured beans have a strong effect on the growth of the plant itself. Plant yields are also affected by the combination of phosphorus and water supply, resulting in a 12% increase in yields.
Nitrogen Nutrition is another factor that affects the results of Cicer arietinum , although the application itself differs from other annual crops related to the levels given to the plant. High doses of nitrogen inhibit the yield of long bean plants. Drought stress is a factor that may also inhibit the absorption of nitrogen and subsequent fixation at the root of icetery Cicer . The growth of perennial beans depends on the balance between nitrogen fixation and assimilation that is also characteristic of many other types of agricultural crops. The effects of drought stress, sowing, and mineral nitrogen supply all have an effect on yield and crop size, with trials showing that Cicer arietinum is different from other plant species in its capacity to assimilate minerals. supply of nitrogen from the soil during drought stress. Additional minerals and micronutrients make the nitrogen and phosphorus absorption process more available. Inorganic phosphate ions are generally attracted to minerals such as iron and aluminum oxide.
In addition, growth and yield are also limited by the lack of zinc and boron in the soil. The boron-rich soil results in improved yield and the size of long beans, while soil fertilization with zinc does not seem to have any real effect on long bean yields.
Pathogen
Pathogens in green beans are a major cause of yield loss (up to 90%). One example is the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris , is present in most major pulse producing areas and causes regular yield damage between 10 and 15%.
From 1978 to 1995, the number of pathogens worldwide increased from 49 to 172, 35 of which were recorded in India. These pathogens come from groups of bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasma and nematodes and exhibit high genotypic variations. The most distributed pathogens are Ascochyta rabiei (35 countries), Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris (32 countries) Uromyces ciceris-arietini (25 countries), leaf-roll virus (23 countries), and Macrophomina phaseolina (21 countries). Ascochyta the emergence of diseases favored by wet weather; spores are brought to new plants by wind and splash water.
Stagnation in yield increases over the past decade is associated with susceptibility to pathogens. Research for improved yields, such as attempts to increase yields from 0.8 to 2.0 tonnes per hectare by breeding cold-resistant varieties, has always been associated with breeding pathogenic resistance as pathogens such as Ascochyta rabiei and F o. f.sp.
See also
References
External links
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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