prison , also known as penitentiary , jail , gaol (dated, English English), Correctional (American English), detention center (American English), or detention center is a facility where detainees are forcibly locked down and denied freedoms under state authorities. Prisons are most often used in criminal justice systems: people accused of crimes may be imprisoned until they are brought to justice; the person who appeals or is found guilty of a crime in court may be sentenced to a specific jail term.
Prisons can also be used as a means of political repression by an authoritarian regime. Their perceived opponents may be jailed for political crimes, often without trial or other legal process; this use is illegal under most forms of international law governing fair trial administration. In times of war, prisoners of war or prisoners may be detained in military prisons or prisoners of war camps, and large groups of civilians may be imprisoned in internment camps.
In American English, prison and prisons are usually treated as having separate definitions. The term prison prison tends to describe institutions that imprison people for longer periods of time, such as years, and are operated by the state or federal government. The term jail tends to describe the institution to restrict people for shorter durations (eg for shorter sentences or pre-adjudication detention) and is usually operated by local government. Outside North America, prison and prison have the same meaning.
Common slang terms for prison include: "pokey", "slammer", "clink", "the joint", "the calaboose", "hoosegow" and "the big house". The term slang for prison includes: "behind bars", "in stirring" and "over the river" (a possible reference to Sing Sing).
Video Prison
History
Ancient
The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization. In accordance with the arrival of the state is the development of written language, which allows the creation of a formal legal code as an official guideline for the community. The most famous of these early codes of code is the Code of Hammurabi, written in Babylon around 1750 BC. The punishment for violation of the law in the Code of Hammurabi almost exclusively centers on the concept of lex talionis ("the law of revenge"), in which people are punished as a form of retaliation, often by the victims themselves. The idea of ​​this punishment as retaliation or retaliation can also be found in many other legal codes from early civilizations, including ancient Sumerian codes, Indian Manama Dharma Astra , Hermes Trismegistus Egypt, and the Law of Moses of Israel.
Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas using punishment to reform offenders rather than just using it as a levy. Prison as a punishment is used initially for those who can not afford to pay their penalty. Finally, because the poor Athenians could not pay their penalties, which led to unlimited periods of imprisonment, the deadline was fixed instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as desmoterion ("chain place").
The Romans were among the first to use the prison as a form of punishment, not just for detention. Various existing structures are used for detention houses, such as metal enclosures, basements of public buildings, and mining. One of the most famous Roman prisons is Mamertine Prison, founded around 640 BC. by Ancus Marcius. Mamertine Prison is located in a sewer system under ancient Rome and contains a network of large dungeons where prisoners are held in dirty conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public works projects is also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens are sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula (primitive form of prison in which disobedient slaves are chained to the desk and do forced labor).
Middle Ages into the 17th century
During the Middle Ages in Europe, palaces, fortifications, and basements of public buildings were often used as emergency prisons. Ownership of the rights and abilities to imprison citizens, however, gives air legitimacy to officials at all levels of government, from king to district court to city council; and the ability of a person who is imprisoned or killed serves as a marker of who in society has power or authority over others. Another common punishment is to punish people for slavery, involving prisoners who are chained together under a boat and forcing them to row on naval vessels or merchant ships.
However, the concept of modern prisons remains largely unknown until the early 19th century. Punishment usually consists of the physical form of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, caning, abuse, and non-physical punishment, such as public embarrassing rituals (such as shares). From the Middle Ages to the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, prisons were rarely used as punishment in themselves, and prisons were mainly to hold those waiting for trial and inmates awaiting punishment.
However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London, which resulted in the construction of other corrective houses. These homes accommodate most of the small offenders, homeless, and poor locals. In these facilities, inmates are given jobs, and through prison work they are taught how to work for a living. At the end of the 17th century, corrective houses were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of local peace courts.
Modern era
From the late seventeenth century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public executions and torture became wider both in Europe and in the United States. Particularly under the Code of Blood, with some alternative punishments, the imposition of capital punishment for petty crimes, such as theft, is proving increasingly unpopular in the public eye; many jurors refused to punish defendants of petty crimes when they knew that the defendants would be sentenced to death. The rulers are beginning to look for ways to punish and control their people in ways that do not cause people to associate them with the tyrannical and violent sunglasses. They develop a system of mass detention, often with hard work, as a solution. The current prison reform movement is strongly influenced by two rather contradictory philosophies. The first is based on the ideas of Enlightenment utilitarianism and rationalism, and suggests that prisons should only be used as a more effective substitute for the punishment of public bodies such as whipping, hanging, etc. This theory, referred to as "deterrence," claims that the main purpose of prison is to be so violent and scary that they prevent people from committing crimes for fear of going to jail. The second theory, which sees prison as a form of rehabilitation, or moral reform, is based on religious ideas that equate crime with sin, and sees prisons as a place to teach prisoners in Christian morality , proper obedience and behavior. These reformers then believed that prisons could be built as humane moral institutions of teaching, and that the behavior of prisoners could be "corrected" so that when they were released they would become a model of society.
Transportation, prison and penal colony
The British used the convict criminal punishment (and others generally young and poor) for a period of indentured slavery in the general British American population between the 1610s and 1776. The Transportation Act of 1717 made this option available for lower crimes, or offered by wisdom as a long-term alternative to the death penalty, which can theoretically be imposed for more violations. The great expansion of transportation was the first major innovation in the practice of British imprisonment in the 18th century. Transportation to America was suddenly suspended by the Criminal Code 1776 (16 Geo.3 c.43) with the commencement of the American Uprising. While the penalty for transport continues, it sets the policy of forced labor punishment instead. Transport suspension also encourages the use of prisons for punishment and the beginning of prison development programs. Britain will continue transport to specially planned criminal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868.
Gaol at the time was run as a business venture, and contained both criminals and debtors; the latter often placed with their younger wives and children. Supervisors make their money by charging prisoners for food, drink, and other services, and the system is generally corrupt. One of the seventeenth century reforms was the founding of London Bridewell as a corrective home for women and children. It was the first facility to provide medical services to the detainees.
With the widely used imprisonment transport alternatives discontinued in the 1770s, an urgent need for additional criminal accommodation emerged. Given the undeveloped institutional facilities, the old sailing vessel, called hulks , is the most available and extensible option to use as a temporary confinement. While conditions on these ships are generally appalling, their use and labor thus provide a precedent that convinces many that mass detention and labor are a viable method of crime prevention and punishment. The turn of the 19th century will see the first movement towards prison reform, and in the 1810s, the first state prisons and prison facilities were built, thus inaugurating modern prison facilities available today.
France also sent criminals to foreign criminal colonies, including Louisiana, in the early 18th century. The tuning colonies in French Guyana were operated until 1952, like the famous Satanic Island ( ÃÆ'Žle du Diable ). Katorga Prison is a hard labor camp established in the 17th century in Russia, in remote areas of Siberia and Far Eastern Russia, which has several towns or food sources. Siberia quickly gained frightening connotation of punishment.
Prison reform movement
John Howard is one of the most prominent prison reformers in the world. After visiting several hundred prisons in England and Europe, in his capacity as a high sheriff of Bedfordshire, he published the Prison State in 1777. He was shocked to find detainees who had been released but still limited because they could not pay the fees warden. He proposed broad reforms for the system, including housing each detainee in a separate cell; the requirement that staff be professional and paid by the government, that outside examination of prisons should be imposed, and that detainees should be given a healthy diet and reasonable living conditions. The prison reform charity, the Howard League for Criminal Reform, was founded in 1866 by his admirers.
After Howard's agitation, the Penal Code was passed in 1779. It introduced solitary confinement, religious instruction, labor regimes, and proposed two state penitentiaries (one for men and one for women). However, this was never built because of differences of opinion on the committee and the pressure of the war with France, and prisons remain the local responsibility. But other measures endorsed in the next few years gave the judges with the power to implement many of these reforms, and finally, in 1815, the prison expenses were waived.
The Quakers stood out in the campaign against and publicized the terrible state of jail at the time. Elizabeth Fry documents the conditions prevailing in Newgate prison, where women's section is crowded with women and children, some of whom have not even received a trial. The inmates cook and wash themselves in the small cells where they sleep on the straw. In 1816, Fry managed to find a prison school for children who were imprisoned with their parents. He also started a surveillance system and required women to sew and read the Bible. In 1817, he helped found the Women Prison Reform Association at Newgate.
Development of modern prisons
The theory of the modern prison system was born in London, influenced by the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. Panopticon Bentham introduces the principle of observation and control that supports modern prison design. The notion of imprisoned prisoners as part of their punishment and not just as a state holding to court or hanged, at that time was revolutionary. His view affects the establishment of the first prison used as a crime rehabilitation center. While the application of capital punishment for relatively minor abuses is declining, the notion of detention as a form of punishment and correction is very attractive to reformist-minded thinkers and politicians.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, the death penalty was deemed inappropriate for many of the crimes that had previously been committed, and by the mid-19th century, the prison replaced the death penalty for the most serious offense except murder.
The first state prison in England was the Millbank Jail, founded in 1816 with a capacity of just under 1000 inmates. In 1824, 54 prisons had adopted the disciplinary system advocated by SIPD. In the 1840s, transport to Australia and the use of small people was declining, and Surveyor-General Jail prisoner Joshua Jebb established an ambitious prison development program in the country, with one large prison opened per year. The Pentonville Prison opened in 1842, initiating a tendency to increase the level of detention and the use of prisons as a primary form of criminal punishment. Robert Peel's Gaols Act of 1823 introduces regular visits to detention by priests, reserved for payment of supervisors and forbidden use of iron and daggers.
In 1786, the state of Pennsylvania passed a law mandating that all inmates who had not yet been sentenced to death would be placed in slavery penalties for public works projects such as building roads, fortresses and mines. In addition to the economic benefits of providing free labor sources, the advocates of the new penal code also think that this will hinder criminal activity by setting a glaring public example of the unlawful consequences. However, what actually happens is the frequent show of irregular behavior by the crew of inmate workers, and the arousing of sympathetic feelings of the citizens who witnessed the persecution of the convicted person. The law quickly draws criticism from a humanitarian perspective (as cruel, exploitative and degrading) and from a utilitarian perspective (for failing to prevent crime and delegitimizing the state in the public eye). Reformers like Benjamin Rush have found a solution that will enable continued use of forced labor while still engaging in disorderly conduct and harassment in the eyes of the public. They suggested that prisoners be sent to remote "homes of conversion" where they would be subjected (from public view) to "body aches, labor, surveillance, solitude, and silence... joining cleanliness and simple diet".
Pennsylvania immediately applied this theory, and changed its old prison on Walnut Street in Philadelphia into a state prison, in 1790. The prison was modeled on what is known as the "Pennsylvania system" (or "separate system"), and placed all the prisoners into the cell -sel isolation with nothing other than religious literature, and forcing them to be completely silent to think of their mistakes. New York immediately built the Newgate state prison in Greenwich Village, which is modeled on the Pennsylvania system, and other countries follow.
But by 1820, the belief in the efficacy of legal reform had declined because law changes had no noticeable effect on crime rates, and prisons, where detainees shared large rooms and booty including alcohol, had become riotous and vulnerable to escape. In response, New York developed the Auburn system in which prisoners are confined in separate cells and prohibited from speaking when eating and working together, applying it in Auburn State Prison and Sing Sing in Ossining. The purpose of this is rehabilitative: reformers speak of prisons as models for families and schools and almost all states adopt the plan (though Pennsylvania goes further in separating prisoners). The fame of the system spread and visitors to the US to see the prison included de Tocqueville who wrote Democracy in America as a result of his visit.
The use of prisons on the Continent of Europe has never been as popular as in the English-speaking world, although the state prison system was largely at the end of the 19th century in most European countries. After the unification of Italy in 1861, the government reformed the repressive and arbitrary prison systems they inherited, and the modernized and secular criminal punishment by emphasizing discipline and deterrence. Italy developed advanced psychology under the leadership of Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909).
Another prominent prison reformer who made an important contribution was Alexander Paterson who advocated the need to humanize and socialize methods in the prison system in Britain and America.
Maps Prison
Design
Security
Prisons are usually surrounded by fences, walls, earthwork, geographical features, or other obstacles to prevent escape. Some barriers, barbed wire, electric fences, safe and sustainable main gates, armed guard towers, security lighting, motion sensors, dogs and mobile patrols can also be present depending on the level of security.
Remotely controlled doors, CCTV monitoring, alarms, cages, restraints, non-lethal and deadly weapons, anti-riot equipment and physical separation of units and detainees may also be present in the prison to monitor and control the movements and activities of detainees within the facility.
Modern prison designs increasingly seek to limit and control the movement of detainees throughout the facility and also to allow smaller prison staff to monitor detainees directly; often using a decentralized "podular" layout. (For comparison, 19th century prisons have large landings and cell blocks that allow only the observation of alternating prisoners.) Smaller, separate and independent housing units known as "pods" or "modules" are designed to accommodate 16 to 50 prisoners and arranged around a sports field or supporting facility in a decentralized "campus" pattern. A small number of prison officers, sometimes an officer, supervised every pod. The legumes contain a set of cells arranged around a central control station or a desk where an officer can monitor all cells and entire pods, controlling cell doors and communicating with all of his prisons.
Pods can be designed for high security "indirect supervision", in which officers in separate and sealed control booths monitor the smaller number of prisoners confined to their cells. The alternative is "direct supervision", where officers work in pods and directly interact with and supervise prisoners, who may spend the day outside their cells in the "living room" on the pod floor. The movement of entry or exit from the pod to and from the exercise meter, work assignment or medical appointment may be limited to individual pods at the designated time and generally controlled centrally. Goods and services, such as food, laundry, commissioners, educational materials, religious services, and medical care can be increasingly brought to individual pods or cells as well. Some modern prisons may exclude certain detainees from the general population, usually for security reasons, such as in solitary confinement, celebrities, political figures and former law enforcement officers, those convicted of pedophile, hebephilic or ephebophilic offenses, or those residing in the medical wing or protective custody.
Security classification of inmates
Generally, when a prisoner arrives in prison, they undergo a security classification check and a decisive risk assessment in which they will be placed in the prison system. Classification is assigned by assessing the personal history of detainees and criminal records, and through subjective determinations made by intake personnel (which includes mental health workers, counselors, prison unit managers, etc.). This process will have a major impact on prisoners' experience, determining their level of security, education and work programs, mental health status (eg going to mental health units), and many other factors. This sorting of prisoners is one of the fundamental techniques through which prison administration maintains control over the prison population, and creates a regular and safe prison environment. In most prisons, prisoners were made to wear a prison uniform.
The level of security in the prison system is categorized differently throughout the world, but tends to follow a different pattern. At one end of the spectrum is the safest facility ("maximum security"), which usually holds the detainees considered dangerous, disturbing or perhaps trying to escape. Furthermore, in recent times supermax prisons have been created where the level of detention exceeds maximum security for persons such as terrorists or political prisoners who are perceived as threats to national security, and prisoners from other prisons who have a history of violence or other harassing behavior in prison or suspected of being a gang affiliate. These inmates have individual cells and are kept in locks, often for more than 23 hours per day. Meals are served through a "chuck hole" at the cell door, and each inmate is given one hour of outdoor practice per day, alone. They are usually allowed to make contact with other inmates and are under constant surveillance through closed-circuit television cameras.
At the other end is the "minimum security" prison most often used for homes for those whose security is more strictly deemed unnecessary. For example, when white-collar criminals rarely produce detention, when perpetrators are almost always sent to jail with minimum guarantees because they have committed non-violent crimes. Lower-security prisons are often designed with less strict features, confine prisoners at night in smaller locked dormitories or even cabin-like cabins or houses while allowing them to move freely around the grounds for work or daytime activities. Some countries (such as the UK) also have an "open" prison in which detainees are allowed to leave work or part-time outside of prison. The facilities of Suomenlinna Island in Finland are an example of one such "open" penitentiary. The prison has been open since 1971 and, in September 2013, 95 male prisoners from the facility leave prison every day to work in the appropriate city or commute to the mainland to work or study. Inmates can rent flat-screen televisions, sound systems, and mini-fridges with prison-worker wages they can get - wages ranging between 4.10 and EUR7.30 per hour. With electronic monitoring, detainees are also allowed to visit their families in Helsinki and eat together with the prison staff. Prisoners in Scandinavian facilities were allowed to wear their own clothes.
Public facilities
Modern prisons often accommodate hundreds or thousands of inmates, and must have on-site facilities to meet most of their needs, including food, health, fitness, education, religious practice, entertainment, and many others. Conditions in prisons vary widely throughout the world, and the type of facility within the prison depends on many factors that intersect including funding, legal requirements, and cultural beliefs/practices. However, in addition to cell blocks containing prisoners, there are also certain additional facilities that are common in prisons around the world.
Kitchen and dining room
Prisons generally have to provide food for a large number of individuals, and thus are generally equipped with large institutional kitchens. There are many security considerations, however, that are unique to the prison eating environment. For example, cutlery equipment should be carefully monitored and taken into account at all times, and the prison kitchen layout should be designed in a way that allows staff to observe kitchen staff activities (usually prisoners). The quality of kitchen appliances varies from prison to prison, depending on when the prison is built, and the level of funding available to acquire new equipment. Prisoners often serve food in large cafeterias with rows of tables and benches securely attached to the floor. However, locked inmates in control units, or prisons in "locks" (where prisoners are made to remain in their cells throughout the day) have food trays brought to their cells. It is said that prison food from many developed countries is sufficient to maintain health and diet.
Health Care
Prisons in rich countries and industries provide medical care for most of their inmates. In addition, prison medical staff play a major role in monitoring, regulating, and controlling prison populations through the use of psychiatric evaluation and intervention (psychiatric medications, isolation in mental health units etc.). Prison populations are predominantly from poor minority communities who experience greater rates of chronic disease, substance abuse, and mental illness than the general population. This leads to high demand for medical services, and in countries like the US that do not provide tax-financed health care, prisons are often the first place people can receive medical care (which they can not afford to pay outside).
Prison medical facilities include primary care, mental health services, dental care, substance abuse treatments, and other forms of special care, depending on the needs of prisoners population. Health care services in many prisons have long been criticized for inadequate, under-funded, and understaffed, and many detainees have been abused and mistreated at the hands of prison medical staff entrusted with their care.
Despite the fact that studies reveal more than 50% of those in prison are likely to suffer from at least one mental illness or condition, the verdict of "innocence by reason of insanity" is extremely rare according to the 2014 Scientific American article. In the United States, one million people are in jail mentally without the help or care for their condition and the tendency of a convicted person to re-live, known as a recidivism rate, is very high for those with the most serious disorder. Data analysis in 2000 from several forensic hospitals in California, New York and Oregon found that with treatment, the level of recidivism was "much lower" than untreated untreated mental offenders.
Library and educational facilities
Some prisons provide educational programs for inmates that may include basic literacy, secondary education, or even higher education. Prisoners seek education for a variety of reasons, including skills development after being released, personal enrichment and curiosity, finding something to fill their time, or trying to please prison staff (who can often free up early exemption for good behavior). However, the prisoner's education needs often conflict with the security concerns of prison staff and with the public who wants to "be vigilant against crime" (and thus support the resistance of detainees' access to education). Whatever their reasons for participating in educational programs, prison populations tend to have very low literacy rates and lack basic mathematical skills, and many have not completed secondary education. This lack of basic education severely limits their employment opportunities outside of prisons, leading to high levels of recidivism, and research has shown that prison education can play an important role in helping prisoners reorient their lives and become successful after reentry.
Many prisons also provide libraries where prisoners can check books, or conduct legal research for their cases. Often this library is very small, consisting of several bookshelves. In some countries, like the United States, drastic budget cuts have led to many prison libraries being shut down. Meanwhile, many countries that historically do not have a prison library start developing it. Prison libraries can dramatically improve the quality of life of prisoners, who have a lot of empty time in their hands that can be filled with reading. The time spent reading has many benefits including improved literacy, the ability to understand rules and regulations (leading to improved behavior), the ability to read books that encourage self-reflection and analysis of one's emotional state, awareness of real-world events important, and education that can lead to reentry into society after being released.
Recreation and fitness
Many prisons provide limited recreational and fitness facilities for prisoners. The provision of these services is controversial, with certain elements of society claiming that prisons are being "soft" to inmates, and others claiming that it is cruel and inhuman to limit people for years without recreational opportunities. The tension between these two opinions, coupled with the lack of funding, leads to a variety of different recreational procedures in various prisons. Prison administrators, however, generally find the provision of recreational opportunities to be useful in maintaining order in prison, as it keeps prisoners busy and exerts influence for compliance (by depriving recreational prisoners as punishment). Examples of common facilities/programs available in some prisons are gymnastics and weightlifting, arts and crafts, games (such as cards, chess, or bingo), television sets, and sports teams. In addition, many prisons have outdoor recreation areas, commonly referred to as "sports fields".
Control unit
Most of the detainees are part of the "general population" of the prison, whose members generally can socialize with each other in the public areas of the prison. The control or segregation unit (also called "block" or "isolation cell") is a very safe area of ​​the prison , in which inmates are placed in isolation cells to isolate them from the general population. Other detainees who are often separated from the general population include those in protective custody, or who are under suicide surveillance, and those whose conduct poses a threat to other prisoners.
Other facilities
In addition to the above facilities, other common ones include prison factories and workshops, visiting areas, mailroom, telephone and computer rooms, a prison shop (often called a "canteen") where prisoners can purchase goods, and death sentences where prisoners has been sentenced to death awaiting execution.
Special types
juvenile detention facility
Juvenile prisons are known by various names, including "juvenile detention facilities", "juvenile detention centers", and "reformers". The purpose of the juvenile detention facility is to get young offenders away from the public, while working towards rehabilitation. The idea of ​​separately treating young and adult offenders is a relatively modern idea. The earliest known use of the term "juvenile delinquency" was in London in 1816, from where it rapidly spread to the United States. The first juvenile prison in the United States opened in 1825 in New York City. In 1917, a children's court had been established in all but three countries. It is estimated that in 2011 more than 95,000 adolescents were locked up in jails and prisons in the United States (the largest population of youth inmates in the world). In addition to prisons, many other types of settlement exist within the juvenile justice system, including teenage homes, community-based programs, training schools, and training camps.
Like adult facilities, juvenile detention centers in some countries experience overcrowding due to the large increase in the level of detention of young offenders. Crowds can create a very dangerous environment in juvenile detention centers and juvenile correctional facilities. Density can also lead to a decrease in availability to provide programs and services that are needed and promised to teenagers while they are at the facility. Many times the government is not ready to handle large numbers of residents and therefore facilities can become unstable and create instability in simple logistics.
In addition to congestion, juvenile prisons are questioned for their overall effectiveness in rehabilitating youth. Many critics have noted high levels of juvenile recidivism, and the fact that most jailed youth are those who come from low-socioeconomic classes (who often suffer from cluttered families, lack of educational/employment opportunities, and violence in their communities).
Women's prison
The majority of imprisoned women have been abused before imprisonment, and when they are imprisoned, they may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder. Sexual offenses against female prisoners may include rape, assault, and groping during pat frisks. Male prison officials often violate the privacy of female prisoners by watching them undress, bathe, and go to the bathroom. Research shows that, "women with a history of abuse are more likely to receive sexual harassment from prison staff because they are already conditioned to respond to coercion and threat by agreeing to protect themselves from further violence". "At the federal women's correction facility, 70% of the guards are male," reinforcing the helplessness of female detainees.
Most inmates are colored women from low socioeconomic backgrounds and therefore suffer from both minor chronic diseases (such as diabetes, heart disease and hypertension) and health problems that may result from living in poverty (such as malnutrition, etc.). Jailed women suffer disproportionately from HIV/AIDS, communicable diseases, reproductive problems, and chronic diseases. In the American prison system, HIV is becoming more common among women than among men. According to the US Department of Justice, from 1991 to 1998 the number of female prisoners with HIV increased by 69%, while the equivalent number among male arrestees decreased by 22% over the same time period. The New York State Department of Health stated in 1999 that women entering the New York state jail had twice the HIV rate as men entered the New York state jail. By the end of 2000, women in the US state prison system were 60% more likely to bring HIV than men in the US state prison system.
Maternal needs during pregnancy and childbirth are often at odds with the demands of the prison system. "In 2007, the Bureau of Justice Statistics stated that, on average, 5% of women who enter prisons are pregnant and in prisons 6% of pregnant women". Very few of these women receive prenatal care, which can be very detrimental to mothers and children, especially when combined with a history of inmates about inadequate health care as well as sexual, physical and substance abuse. Most of these pregnancies are considered high-risk. In addition, the lack of maternity clothing and resources for dealing with premature births, fake deliveries, and miscarriages posed a serious challenge to the prisoners. Furthermore, imprisoned women are a free source of labor for private companies. It is noted that if women refuse to work, then their medicinal needs are not met. This is a big problem for pregnant women who may not be able to work physically but are in dire need of medical care. Most pregnant women are shackled for safety reasons in labor. The Eighth Circuit Court of Appeal was established unconstitutional in 2009, and it was forbidden to hold women during labor.
Military jails and war prison camps
Prisons have formed parts of the military system since the French Revolution. France set up its system in 1796. They were modernized in 1852 and since their existence, used diverse to accommodate prisoners of war, unlawful fighters, those whose freedom was perceived as a national security risk by military or civilian authorities, and military personnel found guilty of serious crime. Military prisons in the United States have also been converted into civilian jails, including Alcatraz Island. Alcatraz was once a military prison for soldiers during the American Civil War.
In the American Revolution, British detainees held by the United States were assigned to local farmers as laborers. Britain keeps American sailors in destroying small boats with high mortality rates.
In the Napoleonic wars, the damaged tame is still used for naval prisoners. A French surgeon remembers his detention in Spain, where scurvy, diarrhea, dysentery, and typhus are abundant, and prisoners die by thousands:
- "This magnificent ship is a very large coffin, where the living people are overwhelmed by a slow death... [In hot weather we have] a black army loaf full of sand particles , crackers full of grubs, rotting salted meat, rancid pork fat, spoiled cod, [and] stale rice, peas and beans. "
In the American Civil War, the first prisoners of war were released, after they had promised not to fight unless they were officially exchanged. When the Confederation refused to exchange black prisoners, the system was broken, and each side built a large-scale POW camp. Conditions in terms of housing, food, and medical treatment were poor in Confederations, and the Union retaliated by imposing harsh conditions.
In 1900 the legal framework of the Geneva Conventions and The Hague gave considerable protection. In the First World War, millions of prisoners were detained on both sides, without great cruelty. Officers receive special treatment. There is an increase in the use of forced labor across Europe. Food and medical care are generally comparable to what the army receives, and housing is much better than front-line conditions.
Political prison and administrative detention
Political prisoners are people who are imprisoned for their political beliefs, activities and affiliations. There is much debate about who qualifies as "political prisoners". Categories of "political prisoners" are often contested, and many of the regimes that imprison political prisoners often claim that they are merely "criminals". Others who are sometimes classified as "political prisoners" include prisoners politicized in prison, and then punished for their involvement with political causes.
Many countries that defend or in the past have a special prison system aimed at political prisoners. In some countries, dissidents may be detained, tortured, executed, and/or "disappeared" without trial. This can happen either legally, or externally (sometimes by people who wrongly accuse and make evidence against them).
Administrative detention is a prison classification or detention center where people are detained without trial.
Psychiatric facilities
Some psychiatric facilities have prison characteristics, especially when limiting a patient who has committed a crime and is considered dangerous. In addition, many prisons have psychiatric units dedicated to housing criminals who are diagnosed with various mental disorders. The United States government refers to psychiatric prisons as "Federal Medical Center (FMC)".
Prison population
Some jurisdictions refer to prison populations (total or per-prison) as imprisonment .
In 2010, the International Center for Prison Studies that at least 10.1 million people are imprisoned around the world.
In 2012 the United States has the world's largest prison population, with more than 2.3 million people in prisons or American jails - up from 744,000 in 1985 - making 1 out of every 100 American adults prisoners. In the same year it was reported that the US government spent about US $ 37 billion to keep the prison. CNBC estimates that the cost of maintaining the US prison system is US $ 74 billion per year.
Not all countries experience an increase in prison populations; Sweden closed four prisons in 2013 due to a significant drop in the number of inmates. The Swedish prison and experimental services hinted that Sweden's detention rate was "unusual", with the number of prisons in Sweden falling by about 1% per year since 2004.
Economic prison industry
In the United States alone, over $ 74 billion per year is spent on jail, with over 800,000 people working in the prison industry. As the prison population grows, incomes increase for small and large businesses that build facilities, and provide equipment (security systems, furniture, clothing), and services (transport, communications, health care, food) to prisons. These parties have a strong interest in expanding the prison system because their development and prosperity are directly dependent on the number of inmates.
The prison industry also includes private businesses that benefit from the exploitation of prison workers. Some scholars, using the term industrial prison complex, have argued that the "hiring of prisoners" tendency is a continuation of the tradition of slavery, showing that the Third Amendment of the Constitution of the United States frees slaves but allows for forced labor for people convicted of crimes. Prisons are very attractive to employers, because inmates can be made to do a lot of work, under the conditions most unacceptable to free workers (and will be illegal outside prisons): wage payments below minimum wage, no insurance, no collective bargaining, lack of alternative options, etc. Prison workers can immediately deprive job-free jobs in a number of sectors, since organized labor is less competitive than prison counterparts.
Social effects
Internal
Prisons can be a difficult place to live and work, even in developed countries in the present. By their own definition, individual prison houses are likely to be vulnerable to violence and breaking the rules. It is also typical that most inmates have mental health problems. A 2014 US report found that this included 64% of local prison detainees, 54% of state prisoners and 45% of federal detainees. The environment may be exacerbated by excessive density; poor sanitation and maintenance; violence by prisoners against detainees or other staff; staff error; prison gang; self-harm; and the widespread smuggling of illegal drugs and other contraband. In some cases, disruptions have escalated into full-scale prison riots. Academic research has found that poor conditions tend to increase the likelihood of violence in prisons.
External
Prisoners can face difficulties to reintegrate into society once they are released. They often find it difficult to find a job, earn less money when they find a job, and experience various medical and psychological problems. Many countries have high rates of recidivism. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, 67.8% of prisoners released in the United States were reinstated within three years and 76.6% were retained within five years. If detainees have a family, they tend to suffer socially and economically from their absence.
If people have a very high prison sentence rate, these effects become evident not only in the family unit but also in the whole poor. The high cost of maintaining a high level of imprisonment also requires money to be paid by taxpayers or other government agencies.
Theories of punishment and criminality
Various justifications and explanations are put forward for why people are imprisoned by the state. The most common are:
- Rehabilitation : The rehab theory argues that the purpose of imprisonment is to change the lives of detainees in a way that will make them members of a productive and law-abiding community once they are released. This idea was promoted by the 19th century reformers, who promoted prison as a humane alternative to harsh punishment in the past. Many governments and prison systems have adopted rehabilitation as an official destination. In the United States and Canada, prisons are often referred to as "Correction" services for this reason.
- Prevention : Denial theories argue that by punishing criminals with harsh penalties, others who might consider criminal activity will be very afraid of the consequences they will choose not to commit crimes from fear. Incapacitation Theories of incapacitation state that when detainees are imprisoned, they will not be able to commit a crime, thereby making the community safer.
- Vengeance : The revenge theory states that the purpose of imprisonment is to cause sufficient misery to the prisoners, in proportion to the seriousness of their crime. These theories do not always focus on whether certain punishments benefit society, but rather are based on the belief that some kind of moral balance will be achieved by "paying back" prisoners for the mistakes they make.
Evaluation
Academic studies have convinced, whether a high level of imprisonment reduces crime rates compared to low levels of imprisonment; only a small proportion suggest it creates significant reductions, and others suggest to increase crime.
Prisoners are at risk of being drawn further into the crime, as they may become acquainted with other criminals, trained in further criminal activity, subject to further harassment (both from staff and other detainees) and leave with criminal records that make it difficult to find employment law after freed. All of these things can result in higher reoffending possibilities when released.
This has resulted in a series of studies that are skeptical of the idea that prisons can rehabilitate offenders. As Morris and Rothman (1995) point out, "It's hard to train for freedom in a cage." Some countries have been able to operate prison systems with low levels of recidivism, including Norway and Sweden. On the other hand, in many countries including the United States, most detainees are held back within 3 years of their release. Prison reform organizations such as the Howard League for Criminal Reform do not fully oppose attempts to rehabilitate violators, but instead argue that most detainees will be more likely to be rehabilitated if they receive punishment other than imprisonment.
The National Institute of Justice argues that offenders can be hindered by the fear of being caught but unlikely to be hindered by fear or experience of punishment. Like Lawrence W. Sherman, they argue that better policing is a more effective way to reduce crime rates.
The argument that prisons can reduce crime through incompetence is more widely accepted, even among academics who doubt that prisons can rehabilitate or prevent offenders. Different arguments from Arrigo and Milovanovic, who argue that prisoners will only continue to sacrifice people in prison and that these dangers have an impact on society outside.
Alternative
Modern prison reform movements generally try to reduce prison populations. The main purpose is to improve the condition by reducing the density. The prison reformers also argue that alternative methods are often better at rehabilitating offenders and preventing crime in the long term. Among the countries that have sought to actively reduce prison populations include Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands.
Alternative prison sentences include:
- Fines
- Community services
- Pending sentences: The offender is on probation, and is only serving a prison term if his probation is broken. This is similar to the Canadian concept of conditional sentences.
- House arrest/curfew: Sometimes severe suspension/conditional punishment conditions.
- Compulsory care for drug offenders.
- Rehabilitation programs, such as anger management classes.
- Mental health care for offenders with mental illness.
- Conditional discharges: Offenders are not punished for crimes if they comply with certain conditions; usually they do not have to commit further crimes within the specified period.
- Other court orders that extract privileges from the offender, such as forbidding offenders driving a car from driving.
- Restorative justice program, which overlaps with the above method. Restorative justice is based on the mediation arrangements between perpetrators and victims, so that offenders can be held accountable for their actions, "to correct the damage they have done - by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service".
When this alternative is used, actual imprisonment can be used as a punishment for non-compliance.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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