Coca is one of four plants cultivated in the Erythroxylaceae family, originally from western South America.
These plants are grown as cash crops in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, even in areas where cultivation is illegal. There have been reports that the plant is cultivated in southern Mexico as a commercial and alternative plant to smuggle cocaine recreational products. It also plays a role in many traditional Andean cultures as well as Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (see Traditional usage).
Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloids, cocaine. The content of coca leaf alkaloids is relatively low, between 0.25% and 0.77%. The indigenous people use it for stimulants, such as coffee, or energy sources or both. Coca-Cola uses coca leaf extract in its products from 1885 to about 1903. Coca extraction from coca requires several solvents and chemical processes known as acid/base extraction, which can easily extract alkaloids from plants.
Video Coca
Description
The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2 to 3 meters (7 to 10 feet). The branches are straight, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oblong, and pointed at the extremities. Characteristics of marked leaves are the parts isolated by two long curved lines, one on each side of the midrib, and more prominently on the underside of the leaf.
The flowers are small, and thrown in groups with short stalks; The crown consists of five yellowish white petals, the heart-shaped head, and the pistil consists of three carpides joined together to form a three-space ovary. The flowers grow into red berries.
The leaves are sometimes eaten by the moth larvae of Eloria noyesi.
Maps Coca
Species and evolutions
The four cultivated cultivars were domesticated in pre-Columbian times and more closely related to each other than to other species.
There are two main theories related to the evolution of the cultivated coke. The first (presented by Plowman and Bohm) shows that Erythroxylum coca var. coca is the ancestor, while Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense derives from it into drought tolerance, and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense comes from Erythroxylum novogranatense var. Truxillense .
Recent research based on genetic evidence (Johnson et al., In 2005, Emche et al. In 2011 and Islam 2011) did not support this linear evolution and instead showed the second domestication event as the origin of Erythroxylum novogranatense varieties. There may be common ancestors, but they have not been found.
The wild population of Erythroxylum coca var. coca is found east of the Andes; The other 3 taxa are known simply as cultivated plants.
Two subspecies of Erythroxylum coca are almost indistinguishable phenotypically. Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense is a similar phenotype, but can be distinguished morphologically. Under the old Cronquist system classifying flowering plants, these were placed in the order of Linales; a more modern system placed it in the order of Malpighiales.
Herbicide resistant varieties
Also known as supercoca or millionaire , Boliviana negra is a relatively new form of coca that is resistant to herbicides called glyphosate. Glyphosate is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar air eradication eradication campaign undertaken by the Colombian government with US financial and military support known as Plan Colombia.
The herbicidal resistance of this strain has at least two possible explanations: that coca farmers' peer-to-peer networks use selective breeding to improve this property through tireless efforts, or the plants are genetically modified in the laboratory. In 1996, patented patented glyphosate soybean was marketed by the Monsanto Company, showing that it is possible to modify coca genetically in a similar way. Spraying Boliviana negra with glyphosate will serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating weeds that can not stand around it. Joshua Davis, in the Wired article cited below, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by glyphosate-resistant soybeans, showed Bolivana negra had been made in the laboratory. with different techniques or raised in the field.
Cultivation
Coca is traditionally cultivated in the lowlands on the eastern slope of the Andes (Yungas), or the highlands depend on which species grow. Coca production begins in the valleys and upper forest areas of the Andean region, where Colombia, Peru and Bolivia countries host more than 98 percent of cocoa-planted global land. Coca plantations are also recently discovered in Mexico, which can have major implications for illegal planting of crops.
Seeds are planted from December to January in small patches ( almacigas ) sheltered from the sun, and young plants when located at 40 to 60 cm (16 to 24 inches) are placed in the final planting hole. ( aspi ), or if the soil is flat, in the grooves (uachos ) in carefully planted soil. Plants thrive in hot, wet and humid locations, such as forest clearing; but the most preferred leaves are obtained in the drier areas, on the hillside. Leaves are collected from plants that vary in age from one and a half to forty years and above, but only fresh new growth is harvested. They are thought to be ready to be unplugged when they break up. The first and most abundant harvest is in March after the wet season, the second is at the end of June, and the third in October or November. The green leaf ( matu ) is spread over a thin layer of coarse wool and dried in the sun; they are then packed in sacks, which must be kept dry to maintain the quality of the leaves.
Pharmacological Aspects
The active ingredient of coca pharmacology is the cocaine alkaloids, which are found in an amount of about 0.3 to 1.5%, averaging 0.8%, in fresh leaves. In addition to cocaine, coca leaves contain a number of other alkaloids, including methylecgonine syndrome, benzoylecgonine, truxilline, hydroxytropacocaine, tropacocaine, ecgonine, cuscohygrine, dihydrocuscohygrine, nicotine, and hygrine. When chewed, coca acts as a mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue. The absorption of coca from the leaves is less rapid than nasal application of a purified alkaloid form (almost all coca oxal is absorbed within 20 minutes of nasal application, while it takes 2-12 hours after the consumption of raw leaves for alkaline concentrations to the top.). When the raw leaves are consumed in tea, between 59 and 90% of the coca absorbed alkaloids are absorbed.
Coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form, does not cause physiological or psychological dependence, nor does it abstain after long-term use produces typical symptoms of substance addiction. Due to its alkaloid content and non-addictive properties, coca has been suggested as a method to help restore the cocaine addict to stop the drug.
History
The traces of coca have been found on mummies aged 3000 years ago. Another proof date chewed communal coca with lime 8000 years ago. Beginning with the Valdivian culture, about 3000 BC, there is an unbroken record of coca leaf consumption by successful cultural groups on the coast of Ecuador until the arrival of Europe as shown in their ceramic sculptures and abundant caliber or lime pots. Coca's consumption among the northern Coast of Peru tribes began around 2000 BC as evidenced by the caliber discovered by Junius Bird at Huaca Prieta and the appearance of a special chalk container in the Jetetepeque river valley. The vast archaeological evidence for chewing coca leaves dates back at least to the 6th century AD of the Moche period, and the subsequent Inca period, based on the mummies found with the supply of coca leaf, the pottery depicting the characteristic cheek bulges of the chewing coca, the spatula to extract the alkali and figured bags to the leaves coca and chalk made of precious metals, and representations of coca gold in the Inca's special garden in Cuzco.
Coca chewing may initially be confined to the eastern Andes before being introduced to the Inca. Since the plant is regarded as having a divine origin, its cultivation is the subject of state monopoly and its use is limited to the nobility and some favored classes (court orators, couriers, favored public workers, and soldiers) by the Inca Topaz rule (1471-1493). When the Inca kingdom declines, the leaves become more widely available. After some consideration, Philip II of Spain issued a decree acknowledging that the drug was important to the welfare of the Andean Indians but urged the missionaries to end the use of religion. The Spaniards are believed to have effectively encouraged the use of coca by the rising majority of the population to increase labor output and their tolerance for hunger, but it is not clear that this was deliberately planned.
Coca was first introduced to Europe in the 16th century, but did not become popular until the mid-19th century, with the publication of influential papers by Dr. Paolo Mantegazza praised his stimulating effect on cognition. This led to the discovery of coca wine and the first pure cocaine production. Coca wine (which is Vin Mariani is the most famous brand) and other preparations containing coca are widely sold as patent medicines and tonics, with claims to a wide range of health benefits. The original version of Coca-Cola is included. These products became illegal in most countries outside South America at the beginning of the 20th century, after the nature of cocaine addiction was widely recognized. In 1859, Albert Niemann of the University of GÃÆ'¶ttingen became the first to isolate the main coca alkaloids, which he named "cocaine".
At the beginning of the 20th century, Dutch colonists in Java became coca leaf exporters. In 1912 the delivery to Amsterdam, where the leaves were processed into cocaine, reached 1,000 tons, overtaking the Peruvian export market. Despite the years of the First World War, Java remained a coca exporter larger than Peru until the late 1920s. Other colonial powers also tried to grow coca (including English in India), but with the exception of Japan in Formosa, this was relatively unsuccessful.
Recently (2006), governments from several South American countries, such as Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela, have defended and championed the traditional use of coca, as well as the use of leaves and extracts in household products such as tea and toothpaste. The coca factory is also an inspiration for the Coca Bolivia Museum.
Traditional use
Medicine
The traditional use of coca is primarily a stimulant to overcome fatigue, hunger, and thirst. It is considered very effective against altitude sickness. It is also used as an anesthetic and analgesic to relieve headache, rheumatic pain, injuries and injuries, etc. Before stronger anesthesia is available, it is also used for bone fractures, childbirth, and during trepanning surgery on the skull. The high calcium content in coca explains why people use it for fractures. Because coca constricts blood vessels, it also serves to fight bleeding, and coca seeds are used for nosebleeds. The use of coca by indigenous people has also been reported as a treatment for malaria, ulcers, asthma, to improve digestion, to protect against bowel weakness, as an aphrodisiac, and credited with increasing longevity. Modern studies have supported a number of these medical applications.
Nutrition
Raw coca leaf, chewed or consumed as tea or mate de coca, rich in nutritional content. In particular, coca plants contain important minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus), vitamins (B1, B2, C, and E) and nutrients such as protein and fiber.
Religion
Coca has also become an important part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Incan period to the present. Coca leaf plays an important part in the offering to the apus (mountain), Inti (sun), or Pachamama (earth). Coca leaves are also often read in the form of analogic prophecies by reading tea leaves in other cultures. As one example of many traditional beliefs about coca, it is believed by Cerro de Pasco miners to soften the ore veins, if chewed and dumped on them (see Cocomama in Inca mythology). In addition, the use of coca in shamanic rituals is also documented wherever indigenous peoples grow these crops. For example, Tayronas of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia will chew the plant before the extended meditation and prayer.
Traditional preparation
Traditionally, coca leaves are well prepared for chewing or as tea (mate de coca).
Chew
In Bolivia coca leaf bags are sold in local markets and by street vendors. The activity of chewing coca is called mambear , chacchar or acullicar , borrowed from Quechua, coquear (northern Argentina), or at Bolivia, picchar , is derived from Aymara. Spanish masticar is also commonly used, along with the slang "bolear," which comes from the word "ball" or a bagged coca ball on the cheek while chewing. The typical coca consumption is about 2 ounces (57 grams) per day, and contemporary methods are believed to be unchanged from ancient times. Coca is stored in a woven pouch ( chuspa or huallqui ). Some leaves are selected to form quid (acullico) held between the mouth and gums. Doing so can cause a tingling and numbing sensation in their mouth. (Nococaine/procaine previously existing orthodontic anesthesia has the same effect.)
Chewing coca leaf is most common in indigenous peoples throughout the central Andean region, especially in places like the highlands of Argentina, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru, where coca cultivation and consumption are part of a national culture, just like chicha. It also serves as a strong symbol of indigenous cultural and religious identity, among the diversity of indigenous nations throughout South America. Tobacco leaves are also traditionally chewed in the same way in North America, although modern chewing tobacco is usually processed on a large scale.
One option for chewing coca is with a small amount of ilucta (preparation of ash from quinoa plants) added to the coca leaf; it softens their astringent flavor and activates the alkaloids. Other names for these constituents are llipta in Peru and the Spanish word lejÃÆ'a , bleach in English. Consumers carefully use wooden sticks (previously often spatulas of precious metals) to move alkaline components into the quid without touching the meat with corrosive substances. The alkali component, usually stored in pumpkin (ishcupuro or poporo ), can be made by burning lime to form unlimited lime, burning quinoa stems, or bark of a particular tree, and can be called ilipta , tocra or mambe depending on the composition. Many of these ingredients taste salty, but there are variations. The most common base in the La Paz region of Bolivia is a product known as leuca dulce, which is made of quinoa ash mixed with anise and sugar cane, forming a black putty which is soft with a sweet and pleasant taste. In some places, baking soda is used under the name bico .
In Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, on the Caribbean Coast of Colombia, coca is consumed by Kogi, Arhuaco and Wiwa using a special device called poporo. It describes the womb and the stick is a phallic symbol. The movement of a stick in poporo symbolizes a sexual act. For a man, poporo is a good friend who means "food", "woman", "memory", and "meditation". Poporo is a sign of maturity. When a boy is ready to get married, his mother initiates him in the use of coca. This initiation action was carefully monitored by Mamo, a traditional priest-teacher-leader.
Fresh samples of dried leaves, unconfined, dark green on top, and grayish green on the lower surface, and have a strong tea-like scent. When chewed, they produce a pleasant numbness in the mouth, and have a pleasant and sharp taste. They are traditionally chewed with lime or some other reagents such as bicarbonate soda to increase the release of the active ingredient from the leaves. The older species has camphor whitewash and brownish color, and lacks spicy flavor.
Tea
Although chewing coca leaf is only common among indigenous populations, coca tea consumption ( Mate de coca ) is common in all sectors of society in the Andean countries, especially because of their altitude from sea level. , and is widely considered to be beneficial to health, mood, and energy. Coca leaf is sold in tea bags at most of the grocery stores in the area, and the company that caters to tourists generally has coca tea.
Commercial and industrial use
In commercially manufactured coca and coca tea, granola bars, cakes, hard candy, etc. are available in most shops and supermarkets, including upscale suburban supermarkets.
Coca is used industrially in the cosmetics and food industries. Coca leaf extract that has been decocainized is one of the ingredients in Coca-Cola. Before the criminalization of cocaine, however, the extract was not decocainized. Therefore, the original Coca-Cola formula does include cocaine.
Coca tea is produced industrially from coca leaves in South America by a number of companies, including Enaco S.A. (National Company of Coca) a government company in Peru. Coca leaf is also found in a brand of herbal liquor called "Agwa de Bolivia" (planted in Bolivia and removed in Amsterdam), and natural ingredients at Red Bull Cola, launched in March 2008.
New market
Beginning in the early 21st century, there have been moves in Bolivia, Peru and Venezuela to promote and expand the legal market for crops. The President of these three countries personally identifies himself with this movement. In particular, Evo Morales of Bolivia (elected in December 2005) is a coca farmer union leader. Morales asserts that " la coca no es cocaÃÆ'na " - coca leaves are not cocaine. During his speech to the General Assembly of the United Nations on September 19, 2006, he held a coca leaf in his hand to indicate his irreverence.
Alan GarcÃÆ'a, president of Peru, has recommended its use in salads and other edible preparations. A company based in Peru has announced plans to market a modern version of Vin Mariani, which will be available in natural varieties and de-cocainized.
In Venezuela, former president Hugo Chà ¢ ¡vez said in a speech in January 2008 that he chewed coca every day, and that his "link" was Bolivian President Evo Morales. ChÃÆ'¡vez reportedly said, "I chew coca every day in the morning... and see how I am" before showing his biceps to his audience, the National Assembly of Venezuela.
On the other hand, the Colombian government has recently moved in the opposite direction. Over the years, Bogotá has allowed indigenous coca farmers to sell coca products, promoting the company as one of the few successful commercial opportunities available to recognized tribes such as Nasa, which have grown over the years and regard it as sacred. In December 2005, the indigenous community of Paeces - a Tierradentro (Cauca) - began producing carbonated soft drinks called "Coca Sek". The production method belongs to the resguardos of Calderas (InzÃÆ'¡) and takes about 150 kg kg (331 lb) coca per 3,000 bottles produced. The drink was never widely sold in Colombia and attempts to do so ended in May 2007 when it was suddenly banned by the Colombian government.
Coca Colla is an energy drink produced in Bolivia with the use of coca extract as its base. Launched in Bolivia market in La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba in mid April 2010.
Literary reference
Perhaps the earliest reference to koka in English literature is Abraham Cowley's poem "A Legend of Coca" in 1662 collections of poetry "Six Books of Plants".
International ban coca leaf
Coca leaf is a raw material for the manufacture of drug cocaine, strong stimulants and chemically extracted anesthetics from a large number of coca leaves. Today, since most have been replaced as medical anesthesia by synthetic analogs such as procaine, cocaine is best known as an illegal recreational drug. The cultivation, selling, and ownership of unprocessed coca leaves (but not from processed cocaine) are generally legal in countries - such as Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Argentina - where traditional uses are established, although cultivation is often restricted in an attempt to controlling cocaine production. In the case of Argentina, it is only valid in some northern provinces where this practice is so common that the state has accepted it.
Prohibition of use of coca leaves except for medical or scientific purposes established by the United Nations in the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Coca leaves are listed in Schedule I of the Single Convention 1961 along with cocaine and heroin. The Convention stipulates that "the Parties shall to the extent possible impose the removal of all wild coca bushes which will destroy the coca bushes if cultivated illegally" (Article 26), and that, "Chewing coca leaves should be wiped out within twenty five years after the entry into force of this Convention "(Art. 49, 2.e).
The historical reason for the coca leaf international prohibition in the 1961 Single Convention came from the "Commission of Inquiry on the Coca Leaf Study" published in 1950. Requested from the United Nations by permanent Peruvian representatives, and prepared by a commission that visited Bolivia and Peru briefly in 1949 for "investigating the effects of chewing coca leaf and possibly limiting production and controlling its distribution." It was concluded that the effect of chewing coca leaf is negative, although chewing coca is defined as a habit, not an addiction.
The report was sharply criticized for its arbitrariness, lack of precision and racist connotations. Team professional qualifications and parallel interests are also criticized, such as the methodology used and the incomplete selection and use of scientific literature on coca leaves. Questions have been raised, whether a similar study today will pass the examination and critical review in which scientific studies are routinely subdued.
Despite the legal restrictions among the countries of the treaty, coca chews and drinks coca tea is done daily by millions of people in the Andes and is considered sacred in indigenous cultures. Coca consumers claim that much of the information given about the traditional use of coca leaf and its modern adaptation is false. It has made it impossible to explain the positive aspects of the plant and its potential benefits to the physical, mental and social health of those who consume and cultivate it.
In an effort to gain international acceptance for the legal recognition of coca use traditionally in their respective countries, Peru and Bolivia succeeded in leading an amendment, paragraph 2 of Article 14 into the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Distribution in Narcotics Drugs and Substances- Psychotropic substances, stipulating that measures to eradicate illegal cultivation and to eliminate dark demand "should consider legitimate traditional uses, where there is historical evidence of such use." Bolivia also made official reservations for the 1988 Convention, which requires states to adopt measures to establish the use, consumption, ownership, purchase or planting of coca leaves for private consumption as a crime. Bolivia states that "coca leaf is not, by itself, a drug of narcotics or psychotropic substance" and emphasizes that "its legal system recognizes the ancestral nature of the legitimate use of coca leaf, which for most Bolivians dates back centuries."
However, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) - an independent and quasi-judicial control body for the implementation of the UN drug convention - rejects the validity of article 14 of the 1988 Convention on the requirements of the 1961 Convention, or any reservation made by the parties, as it does not " party rights and obligations under other international drug control treaties. "
The INCB declared in the 1994 Annual Report that "mate de coca, considered harmless and legal in some countries in South America, is an illegal activity under the provisions of the 1961 Convention and the 1988 Convention, although that is not the intent of the ruling conference which adopted the convention. "Implicitly also rejected the Commission's original Inquiry report on Coca Leaf by acknowledging that" there is a need to conduct a scientific review to assess coca-chewing habits and drink coca tea. "
However, the INCB on other occasions showed no sign of increased sensitivity to Bolivia's claims on the rights of their indigenous population, and the general public, to consume coca leaves traditionally by chewing leaves, and drinking coca tea, as "not in line with the provisions Convention 1961. " The Council considers Bolivia, Peru, and several other countries that allow such practices to violate their treaty obligations, and insist that "any party to the Convention should establish as a criminal offense, when committed intentionally, the ownership and purchase of leaf coca for personal consumption."
In reaction to the 2007 INCB Annual Report, the Bolivian government announced that it would formally issue a request to the United Nations to cancel the schedule of coca leaf on the 1st Register of the UN National Convention in 1961. Bolivia led the diplomatic effort to do so from March 2009, but eighteen countries out of total 184, 18 countries are listed as follows (chronologically: United States, Sweden, England, Latvia, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Mexico, Russian Federation, Malaysia, Singapore, and Ukraine) refused changes before the January 2011 deadline. One objection alone was enough to block the modification. Steps that are not legally necessary to support change are taken formally by Spain, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Costa Rica. In June 2011, Bolivia moved to denounce the 1961 Convention on coca leaf ban.
Since the 1980s, the countries where coca grows are under political and economic pressure from the United States to limit crop cultivation to reduce the supply of cocaine in the international market.
Article 26 of the Single Convention on Narcotics Drugs requires states that permit coca-cultivation to appoint a body to regulate the planting and take possession of the crops as soon as possible after harvest, and to destroy all coca that grows wild or illegally. cultivated. Efforts to enforce these provisions, known as coca eradication, have involved many strategies, ranging from spraying air herbicides to coca plants to aid and incentives to encourage farmers to cultivate alternative crops.
The effort is politically controversial, with proponents claiming that cocaine production is several times the amount needed to meet legal demand and concluded that most coca crops are destined for illegal markets. As per the proclaimed view, this will not only contribute to the major social problems of drug abuse, but also financially support rebel groups that collaborate with drug traffickers in some cocaine producer areas. Critics of the effort stated that it created difficulties especially for coca farmers, many of whom were poor and lacked viable alternatives to livelihoods, causing environmental problems, that were ineffective in reducing the supply of cocaine, in part because Cultivation could move to other areas , and that any social hazard created by drug abuse is only exacerbated by the War on Drugs. Environmental issues include "ecocide", where much of the land and forests are sprayed with glyphosate or Roundup, in order to eradicate coca crops. However, the incidental environmental damage is very severe, as many plant species are destroyed in the process.
Coca has been reintroduced to the United States as a flavoring agent in the herbal alcoholic Agents de Bolivia.
Boliviana negra, a genetically engineered coca, holds glyphosate herbicides and increases yields.
Legal status
The main organization authorized to purchase coca leaves is ENACO S.A., headquartered in Peru. Outside of South America, the laws of most countries do not distinguish between coca leaves and other substances containing cocaine, so the ownership of coca leaf is prohibited. In South America the coca leaf is illegal in Paraguay and Brazil.
Dutch
In the Netherlands, coca leaf is legally in the same category as cocaine, both of which are List of drugs from the Law of Opium. The Law of Opium specifically mentions the plant leaves of the genus Erythroxylon . However, live plant ownership of the genus Erythroxylon is not actively prosecuted, although they are prohibited legally.
United States
In the United States, a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey is a registered coca leaf importer. The company produces pure cocaine for medical uses and also produces cocaine-free cocaine extract, which is used as a flavoring agent in Coca-Cola. Other companies have registration with DEA ​​to import coca leaves in accordance with the 2011 Federal Registration Notice to Importers, including Johnson Matthey, Inc., Pharmaceutical Ingredients; Mallinckrodt Inc; Penick Corporation; and the Research Triangle Institute. Analysts have noted the import of coca leaves to the United States, but the actual quantity is unknown.
Canada
Coca leaf is listed as the Schedule I (most dangerous) drug under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of Canada (S.C. 1996, c. 19) with Opium (Heroin) and synthetic opioid analgesics. Specifically, the list of Coca (Erythroxylon), its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids and salts, includes: (1) Coca leaf (2) Cocaine and (3) Ecgonine. Ownership of Schedule I substances is illegal and trade can result in life imprisonment.
Australia
Coca leaf is considered a Schedule 9 substance in Australia based on Poison Standard (October 2015). The substance of Schedule 9 is substances that may be misused or abused, manufactured, possessed, sold or used that must be prohibited by law except where necessary for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with the consent of the Commonwealth and/or State Health Authorities or Territory.
See also
- Alcohol and Medicines History Society
- Illegal drug trafficking in Latin America
References
- Turner C. E., Elsohly M. A., Hanu? L., Elsohly H. N. Isolation of dihydrocuscohygrine from the coca leaf of Peru. Phytochemistry 20 (6), 1403-1405 (1981)
- Coca History. The Divine Plant of the Inca by W. Golden Mortimer, M.D. 576 pp. And/Or Press San Francisco, 1974. This title does not have an ISBN.
- [A] http://tairona.myzen.co.uk/index.php/culture/the_use_of_coca_in_south_america
Ã, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Coca". EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica . 6 (issue 11). Cambridge University Press. pp.Ã, 614-615.
External links
- Shared Responsibility
- Coca leaf: Myth and Reality of the Transnational Institute (TNI)
- Not scheduling coca leaf, Transnational Institute (TNI)
- Coca leaf news page
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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